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3 November 1812 – Napoleon's armies are defeated at the Battle of Vyazma.

Battle of Vyazma

1812 battle during the French invasion of Russia

This article is about the 1812 battle. For the World War II battles around Vyazma, see Battle of Bryansk, Vyazma airborne operation, and Operation Hannover.

The Battle of Vyazma (3 November 1812; 22 October by OS), occurred at the beginning of Napoleon's retreat from Moscow. In this encounter a Russian force commanded by General Miloradovich inflicted heavy losses on the rear guard of the Grande Armée.^[4] Although the French thwarted Miloradovich's goal of encircling and destroying the corps of Marshal Davout, they withdrew in a partial state of disorder due to ongoing Russian harassment and heavy artillery bombardments.^[5][6][7] The French reversal at Vyazma, although indecisive, was significant due to its damaging impact on several corps of Napoleon's retreating army.^[8]

1. ^ Foord, page 319, cites the figure of 2,500 Russian losses
2. ^ Foord, p. 319
3. ^ Foord, p. 319
4. ^ Lieven, pp. 264–265
5. ^ Lieven, p. 264
6. ^ Caulaincourt, p. 1974
7. ^ Segur, p. 167
8. ^ Caulaincourt, p. 197; Segur, p. 168

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4 November 1921 – Japanese Prime Minister Hara Takashi is assassinated in Tokyo.

Hara Takashi

Prime Minister of Japan from 1918 to 1921

"Takashi Hara" redirects here. For the artist, see Takashi Hara (artist).

In this Japanese name, the surname is Hara. The baptismal name is Takashi.

Hara Takashi (原 敬, 15 March 1856 – 4 November 1921) was a Japanese politician who served as the Prime Minister of Japan from 1918 until his assassination.

Hara held several minor ambassadorial roles before rising through the ranks of the Rikken Seiyūkai and being elected to the House of Representatives. Hara served as Home Minister in several cabinets under Saionji Kinmochi and Yamamoto Gonnohyōe between 1906 and 1913. Hara was appointed Prime Minister following the Rice Riots of 1918 and positioned himself as a moderate, participating in the Paris Peace Conference, founding the League of Nations, and relaxing oppressive policies in Japanese Korea. Hara's premiership oversaw the Siberian intervention and the suppression of the March 1st Movement in Japanese-occupied Korea. Hara was assassinated by Nakaoka Kon'ichi, a far-right nationalist, on 4 November 1921.

Hara was the first commoner and first Christian appointed to be Prime Minister of Japan, informally known as Hara Kei, and given the moniker of "commoner prime minister" (平民宰相, heimin saishō).

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5 November 1943 – World War II: Bombing of the Vatican.

Bombing of the Vatican

Air attacks violating Vatican neutrality during World War II

Vatican City was bombed twice during World War II. The first occasion was on the evening of 5 November 1943, when a plane dropped bombs on the area south-west of St. Peter's Basilica, causing considerable damage but no casualties. The second bombing, which affected only the outer margin of the city, was at about the same hour on 1 March 1944. It killed one person and injured another.^[1]

1. ^ Raffaele Alessandrini, "Bombe in Vaticano" in L'Osservatore Romano, 10–11 January 2011 Archived July 15, 2012, at the Wayback Machine

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6 November 1977 – The Kelly Barnes Dam, located above Toccoa Falls Bible College near Toccoa, Georgia, fails, killing 39.

Kelly Barnes Dam

Dam in Georgia, U.S.

Kelly Barnes Dam was an earthen embankment dam on Toccoa Creek in Stephens County, Georgia, United States, just outside the city of Toccoa. Heavy rainfall caused it to collapse on November 6, 1977, and the resulting flood killed 39 people and caused $2.8 million in damage. The dam was never rebuilt.

A memorial to the dead stands downstream, by Toccoa Falls on the campus of Toccoa Falls College.

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7 November 1991 – Magic Johnson announces that he is infected with HIV and retires from the NBA.

Magic Johnson

American basketball player and entrepreneur (born 1959)

For the Red Hot Chili Peppers song, see Mother's Milk (album). For the Nas song, see Magic 2.

"Earvin Johnson" redirects here. For the NBA center, see Ervin Johnson.

Earvin "Magic" Johnson Jr. (born August 14, 1959) is an American businessman and former professional basketball player. Often regarded as the greatest point guard of all time,^{[3][4][5][6][7]} Johnson spent his entire career with the Los Angeles Lakers in the National Basketball Association (NBA). After winning a national championship with Michigan State in 1979, Johnson was selected first overall in the 1979 NBA draft by the Lakers, leading the team to five NBA championships during their "Showtime" era. Johnson retired abruptly in 1991 after announcing that he had contracted HIV, but returned to play in the 1992 All-Star Game, winning the All-Star MVP Award. After protests against his return from his fellow players, he retired again for four years, but returned in 1996, at age 36, to play 32 games for the Lakers before retiring for the third and final time.

Known for his extraordinary court vision, passing abilities, and leadership on the court, Johnson was one of the most dominant players of his era. His career achievements include three NBA Most Valuable Player Awards, three NBA Finals MVPs, nine All-NBA First Team designations, and twelve All-Star games selections. He led the league in regular season assists four times, and is the NBA's all-time leader in average assists per game in both the regular season (11.19 assists per game) and the playoffs (12.35 assists per game).^[8][9] He also holds the records for most career playoff assists and most career playoff triple-doubles.^[10][11] Johnson was the co-captain of the 1992 United States men's Olympic basketball team ("The Dream Team"),^[12] which won the Olympic gold medal in Barcelona. After leaving the NBA in 1991, he formed the Magic Johnson All-Stars, a barnstorming team that traveled around the world playing exhibition games.^[13]

Johnson was honored as one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996 and selected to the NBA 75th Anniversary Team in 2021, and became a two-time inductee into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame—being enshrined in 2002 for his individual career, and again in 2010 as a member of the "Dream Team".^[14] His friendship and rivalry with Boston Celtics star Larry Bird, whom he faced in the 1979 NCAA finals and three NBA championship series, are well documented.

Since his retirement, Johnson has been an advocate for HIV/AIDS prevention and safe sex,^[15] as well as an entrepreneur,^[16] philanthropist,^[17] broadcaster and motivational speaker.^[18] Johnson is a former part-owner of the Lakers and was the team's president of basketball operations in the late 2010s. He is a founding member of Guggenheim Baseball Management, managing entity of the MLB's Los Angeles Dodgers, and also partly owns the WNBA's Los Angeles Sparks, the MLS' Los Angeles FC, and the NFL's Washington Commanders. Johnson has won 14 total championships during his career, one in college, five as an NBA player and eight as an owner.^[19]

1. ^ Povtak, Tim (February 7, 1992). "Magic weekend is on tap as Johnson set for NBA encore". The Baltimore Sun. Archived from the original on May 9, 2021. Retrieved March 2, 2021.
2. ^ "2021–22 Big Ten Men's Basketball Media Guide" (PDF). Big Ten Conference. 2021. p. 88. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved October 9, 2022.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference greatestpg was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference top10pg was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ The Athletic NBA Staff (February 23, 2022). "NBA 75: Top 75 NBA players of all time, from MJ and LeBron to Lenny Wilkens". The Athletic. Archived from the original on April 7, 2022. Retrieved August 17, 2022.
6. ^ Oram, Bill (February 14, 2022). "NBA 75: At No. 5, Magic Johnson combined dazzling playmaking with charisma to lead the Showtime Lakers to five titles". The Athletic. Archived from the original on August 17, 2022. Retrieved August 17, 2022.
7. ^ Greer, Jordan (September 16, 2022). "Magic Johnson vs. Stephen Curry: Does Warriors star have stats case to surpass Lakers legend as GOAT point guard?". Sporting News. Archived from the original on November 28, 2022. Retrieved November 28, 2022.
8. ^ "NBA & ABA Career Leaders and Records for Assists Per Game". Basketball Reference. Archived from the original on March 28, 2013. Retrieved July 10, 2022.
9. ^ "NBA & ABA Career Playoff Leaders and Records for Assists Per Game". Basketball Reference. Archived from the original on September 13, 2019. Retrieved July 10, 2022.
10. ^ "NBA & ABA Career Playoff Leaders and Records for Assists". Basketball Reference. Archived from the original on April 24, 2015. Retrieved August 17, 2022.
11. ^ "NBA & ABA Career Playoff Leaders and Records for Triple-Doubles". Basketball Reference. Archived from the original on February 10, 2024. Retrieved February 10, 2024.
12. ^ Kiisel, Ty (February 6, 2013). "Do you remember who was captain of the Dream Team?". Deseret News. Retrieved March 29, 2024.
13. ^ "Magic Johnson." Archived July 23, 2015, at the Wayback Machine. How Stuff Works. Retrieved June 4, 2022.
14. ^ Rohlin, Melissa (April 4, 2020). "Magic Johnson Says It Breaks His Heart That Kobe Bryant Won't Be At Hall Of Fame Ceremony". Sports Illustrated. Archived from the original on May 9, 2021. Retrieved December 27, 2020.
15. ^ Jaslow, Ryan (November 29, 2013). "Magic Johnson's HIV activism hasn't slowed 22 years after historic announcement". CBS News. Archived from the original on April 5, 2022. Retrieved December 27, 2020.
16. ^ Cite error: The named reference espnticket was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
17. ^ Haire, Thomas (May 1, 2003). "Do You Believe in 'Magic'?". Response Magazine. Archived from the original on October 26, 2006. Retrieved May 27, 2008.
18. ^ Springer, Steve (November 7, 2001). "Magic's Announcement: 10 years later, a real survivor". Los Angeles Times. p. D1.
19. ^ "Magic Johnson now has championship rings in the NBA, MLB and WNBA". Bardown. October 28, 2020. Archived from the original on November 16, 2021. Retrieved December 21, 2020.

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8 November 1898 – The Wilmington Insurrection of 1898, the only instance of an attempted coup d'état in American history.

Wilmington Insurrection of 1898

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• Wilmington massacre

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9 November 1913 – The Great Lakes Storm of 1913, the most destructive natural disaster ever to hit the lakes, destroys 19 ships and kills more than 250 people.

Great Lakes Storm of 1913

Winter storm in 1913 in North America

The Great Lakes Storm of 1913 (historically referred to as the "Big Blow",^[3][a] the "Freshwater Fury", and the "White Hurricane") was a blizzard with hurricane-force winds that devastated the Great Lakes Basin in the Midwestern United States and Southwestern Ontario, Canada, from November 7 to 10, 1913. The storm was most powerful on November 9, battering and overturning ships on four of the five Great Lakes, particularly Lake Huron.

The storm was the deadliest and most destructive natural disaster to hit the lakes in recorded history. More than 250 people were killed. Shipping was hard hit; 19 ships were destroyed, and 19 others were stranded. About $1 million of cargo weighing about 68,300 tons—including coal, iron ore, and grain—was lost. The storm impacted many cities, including Duluth, Minnesota; Chicago, Illinois; and Cleveland, Ohio, which received 22 in (56 cm) of snow combined with winds up to 79 mph (127 km/h) and was paralyzed for days. The extratropical cyclone originated when two major storm fronts that were fueled by the lakes' relatively warm waters—a seasonal process called a "November gale"—converged. It produced wind gusts of 90 mph (140 km/h), waves estimated at over 35 feet (11 m) high, and whiteout snowsqualls. Winds exceeding hurricane force occurred over four of the Great Lakes for extended periods creating very large waves. The large size of the Great Lakes provides wind fetches (the length of water over which a given wind has blown without obstruction) of hundreds of miles, allowing huge waves to form. Rogue waves are known to occur on the Great Lakes, including waves reinforced by reflections from the vertical shores of some of the Great Lakes.

The U.S. Weather Bureau failed to predict the intensity of the storm, and the process of preparing and communicating predictions was slow. These factors contributed to the storm's destructiveness.^[4] The contemporaneous weather forecasters did not have enough data, communications, analysis capability, and understanding of atmospheric dynamics to predict the storm. They could not predict wind directions, which is key to the ability of ships to avoid or cope with the effects of storms.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference 2013nwsreview was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference usgovdata was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Brown 2002, p. 201.
4. ^ Scott, Chris (November 10, 2014). "The White Hurricane: The worst storm in Great Lakes history". The Weather Network. Retrieved March 23, 2017. The Great Storm of 1913, known as the 'White Hurricane'

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10 November 1989 – German citizens begin to bring the Berlin Wall down

Berlin Wall

Barrier that once enclosed West Berlin

This article is about the wall that surrounded West Berlin during the Cold War. For the border that divided most of East and West Germany, see German wall. For the video game, see The Berlin Wall (video game). For the ring wall around the historic city of Berlin, see Berlin Customs Wall.

The Berlin Wall (German: Berliner Mauer, pronounced [bɛʁˌliːnɐ ˈmaʊɐ] ^ⓘ) was a guarded concrete barrier that encircled West Berlin of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG; West Germany) from 1961 to 1989, separating it from East Berlin and the German Democratic Republic (GDR; East Germany).^[a][1][3] Construction of the Berlin Wall was commenced by the government of the GDR on 13 August 1961. It included guard towers placed along large concrete walls,^[4] accompanied by a wide area (later known as the "death strip") that contained anti-vehicle trenches, beds of nails and other defenses. The primary intention for the Wall's construction was to prevent East German citizens from fleeing to the West.^[5]

The Soviet Bloc propaganda portrayed the Wall as protecting its population from "fascist elements conspiring to prevent the will of the people" from building a communist state in the GDR. The authorities officially referred to the Berlin Wall as the Anti-Fascist Protection Rampart (German: Antifaschistischer Schutzwall, pronounced [antifaˌʃɪstɪʃɐ ˈʃʊtsval] ^ⓘ). The West Berlin city government sometimes referred to it as the "Wall of Shame", a term coined by mayor Willy Brandt in reference to the Wall's restriction on freedom of movement.^[6] Along with the separate and much longer inner German border, which demarcated the border between East and West Germany, it came to symbolize physically the Iron Curtain that separated the Western Bloc and Soviet satellite states of the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War.^[7]

Before the Wall's erection, 3.5 million East Germans circumvented Eastern Bloc emigration restrictions and defected from the GDR, many by crossing over the border from East Berlin into West Berlin; from there they could then travel to West Germany and to other Western European countries. Between 1961 and 1989, the Wall prevented almost all such emigration.^[8] During this period, over 100,000^[9] people attempted to escape, and over 5,000 people succeeded in escaping over the Wall, with an estimated death toll of those murdered by East German authorities ranging from 136^[10] to more than 200^[7][11] in and around Berlin.

In 1989, a series of revolutions in nearby Eastern Bloc countries—in Poland and Hungary in particular—caused a chain reaction in East Germany.^[12] In particular, the Pan-European Picnic in August 1989 set in motion a peaceful development during which the Iron Curtain largely broke, the rulers in the East came under pressure to cease their repressive policies, the Berlin Wall fell and finally the Eastern Bloc collapsed.^[13][14][15] After several weeks of civil unrest, the East German government announced on 9 November 1989 that all GDR citizens could visit the FRG and West Berlin. Crowds of East Germans crossed and climbed onto the Wall, joined by West Germans on the other side in a celebratory atmosphere. Over the next few weeks, souvenir hunters chipped away parts of the Wall.^[7] The Brandenburg Gate, a few meters from the Berlin Wall, was opened on 22 December 1989. The demolition of the Wall officially began on 13 June 1990 and was completed in 1994.^[1] The fall of the Berlin Wall paved the way for German reunification, which formally took place on 3 October 1990.^[7]

1. ^ ^{a b c} "Untangling 5 myths about the Berlin Wall". Chicago Tribune. 31 October 2014. Archived from the original on 20 April 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2014.
2. ^ Piotrowicz, Ryszard W.; Blay, Sam (1997). The unification of Germany in international and domestic law. Rodopi. p. 42. ISBN 90-5183-755-0. OCLC 36437948.
3. ^ Video: Berlin, 1961/08/31 (1961). Universal Newsreel. 1961. Retrieved 20 February 2012.
4. ^ Marck, Jack (October 2006). "Over the Wall: A Once-in-a-Lifetime Experience". American Heritage. Archived from the original on 29 August 2008.
5. ^ "Berlin Wall". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 23 January 2024.
6. ^ "Berlin Wall: Five things you might not know". The Telegraph. 12 August 2011. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
7. ^ ^{a b c d} "Berlin Wall Fast Facts". CNN. 16 September 2013. Archived from the original on 13 November 2019. Retrieved 9 April 2019.
8. ^ "Freedom!". Time. 20 November 1989. Archived from the original on 21 November 2007. Retrieved 9 November 2009.
9. ^ "Victims of the Wall". www.berlin.de. 19 August 2020. Archived from the original on 9 December 2021. Retrieved 9 December 2021.
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Chronik was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Cite error: The named reference contemporary research was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
12. ^ Mary Elise Sarotte, Collapse: The Accidental Opening of the Berlin Wall, New York: Basic Books, 2014
13. ^ Hilde Szabo: Die Berliner Mauer begann im Burgenland zu bröckeln (The Berlin Wall began to crumble in Burgenland - German), in Wiener Zeitung 16 August 1999; Otmar Lahodynsky: Paneuropäisches Picknick: Die Generalprobe für den Mauerfall (Pan-European picnic: the dress rehearsal for the fall of the Berlin Wall - German), in: Profil 9 August 2014.
14. ^ Thomas Roser: DDR-Massenflucht: Ein Picknick hebt die Welt aus den Angeln (German - Mass exodus of the GDR: A picnic clears the world) in: Die Presse 16 August 2018.
15. ^ Der 19. August 1989 war ein Test für Gorbatschows" (German - August 19, 1989 was a test for Gorbachev), in: FAZ 19 August 2009.

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11 November 1934 – The Shrine of Remembrance in Melbourne, Australia is opened.

Shrine of Remembrance

War memorial in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

For the memorial in Brisbane, see Shrine of Remembrance, Brisbane.

The Shrine of Remembrance (commonly referred to as The Shrine) is a war memorial in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, located in Kings Domain on St Kilda Road. It was built to honour the men and women of Victoria who served in World War I, but now functions as a memorial to all Australians who have served in any war. It is a site of annual observances for Anzac Day (25 April) and Remembrance Day (11 November), and is one of the largest war memorials in Australia.

Designed by architects Phillip Hudson and James Wardrop, both World War I veterans, the Shrine is in classical style, based on the Tomb of Mausolus at Halicarnassus and the Parthenon in Athens, Greece.^[2] The crowning element at the top of the ziggurat roof references the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates. Built from Tynong granite,^[3] the Shrine originally consisted only of the central sanctuary surrounded by the ambulatory. The sanctuary contains the marble Stone of Remembrance, upon which is engraved the words "Greater love hath no man" (John 15:13); once per year, on 11 November at 11 a.m. (Remembrance Day), a ray of sunlight shines through an aperture in the roof to light up the word "Love" in the inscription.^[4][5] Beneath the sanctuary lies the crypt, which contains a bronze statue of a soldier father and son, and panels listing every unit of the Australian Imperial Force.

The Shrine went through a prolonged process of development, which began in 1918 with an initial proposal to build a Victorian memorial. Two committees were formed, the second of which ran a competition for the memorial's design. The winner was announced in 1922.^[6] However, opposition to the proposal, led by Keith Murdoch and the Herald Sun, forced the governments of the day to rethink the design. A number of alternatives were proposed, the most significant of which was the Anzac Square and cenotaph proposal of 1926. In response, General Sir John Monash used the 1927 Anzac Day march to garner support for the Shrine, and finally won the support of the Victorian government later that year. The foundation stone was laid on 11 November 1927, and the Shrine was officially dedicated on 11 November 1934.^[7]

1. ^ ^{a b} "Shrine of Remembrance". Victorian Heritage Database. Government of Victoria. Retrieved 22 November 2023.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference TaylorP101 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Royall was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Heilbron, J. L. (1999). The Sun in the Church: Cathedrals as Solar Observatories. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: Harvard University Press. pp. 288–289. ISBN 0-674-00536-8.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference EducationProgramP8-10 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference InglisP301-302 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Taylor (2005), pp. 101–102

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12 November 1941 – World War II: The Soviet cruiser Chervona Ukraina is destroyed during the Battle of Sevastopol.

Siege of Sevastopol (1941–42)

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• Siege of Sevastopol (1941–1942)

• From a page move: This is a redirect from a page that has been moved (renamed). This page was kept as a redirect to avoid breaking links, both internal and external, that may have been made to the old page name.

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13 November 1947 – The Soviet Union completes development of the AK-47, one of the first proper assault rifles.

AK-47

Soviet 7.62×39mm assault rifle

This article is about the weapon. For other uses, see AK-47 (disambiguation).

This article is about the AK-47. For the AK family, see Kalashnikov rifle.

Not to be confused with AK-74.

The AK-47, officially known as the Avtomat Kalashnikova (Russian: Автомат Калашникова, lit. 'Kalashnikov's automatic [rifle]'; also known as the Kalashnikov or just AK), is a gas-operated assault rifle that is chambered for the 7.62×39mm cartridge. Developed in the Soviet Union by Russian small-arms designer Mikhail Kalashnikov, it is the originating firearm of the Kalashnikov (or "AK") family of rifles. After more than eight decades since its creation, the AK-47 model and its variants remain one of the most popular and widely used firearms in the world.

Design work on the AK-47 began in 1945. It was presented for official military trials in 1947, and, in 1948, the fixed-stock version was introduced into active service for selected units of the Soviet Army. In early 1949, the AK was officially accepted by the Soviet Armed Forces^[9] and used by the majority of the member states of the Warsaw Pact.

The model and its variants owe their global popularity to their reliability under harsh conditions, low production cost (compared to contemporary weapons), availability in virtually every geographic region, and ease of use. The AK has been manufactured in many countries and has seen service with armed forces as well as irregular forces and insurgencies throughout the world. As of 2004^[update], "of the estimated 500 million firearms worldwide, approximately 100 million belong to the Kalashnikov family, three-quarters of which are AK-47s".^[4] The model is the basis for the development of many other types of individual, crew-served, and specialized firearms.

1. ^ Monetchikov 2005, chpts. 6 and 7: (if AK-46 and AK-47 are to be seen as separate designs).
2. ^ Ezell, Edward Clinton (1986). The AK47 Story, Evolution of the Kalashnikov Weapons. Stackpole Books. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-811-70916-3.
3. ^ Joe, Poyer (2004). The AK-47 and AK-74 Kalashnikov Rifles and Their Variations. North Cape Publications Inc. p. 8. ISBN 1-882391-33-0.
4. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference k3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference foxnews was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ ^{a b} НСД. 7,62-мм автомат АК 1967, pp. 161–162.
7. ^ ^{a b} НСД. 7,62-мм автомат АКМ (АКМС) 1983, pp. 149–150.
8. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k} Cite error: The named reference izhmash was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Monetchikov 2005, p. 67; Bolotin 1995, p. 129.

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14 November 1975 – Spain abandons Western Sahara

Western Sahara

Territory in North and West Africa

This article is about the geographical area. For the partially recognized state that controls the Free Zone and claims sovereignty over Western Sahara, see Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic.

Disputed territory in Political status of Western Sahara

Western Sahara^[a] is a disputed territory on the northwest coast of Africa. About 20% of the territory is controlled by the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR); the remaining 80% is occupied^[3][4] and administered by neighboring Morocco. It has a surface area of 266,000 square kilometres (103,000 sq mi). It is the second most sparsely populated country in the world and most sparsely in Africa, mainly consisting of desert flatlands. The population is estimated at about 500,000,^[5] of which nearly 40% live in Morocco-controlled Laayoune, the largest city in Western Sahara.

Occupied by Spain until 1975, Western Sahara has been on the United Nations list of non-self-governing territories since 1963 after a Moroccan demand.^[6] In 1965, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution on Western Sahara, asking Spain to decolonize the territory.^[7] A year later, a resolution was passed requesting that a referendum be held by Spain on self-determination.^[8] In 1975, Spain relinquished administrative control of the territory to a joint administration by Morocco^[9] and Mauritania.^[8] A war erupted between those countries and a Sahrawi nationalist movement, the Polisario Front, which proclaimed itself the rightful leadership of the SADR with a government in exile in Tindouf, Algeria. Mauritania withdrew its claims in 1979, and Morocco secured de facto control of most of the territory, including all major cities and most natural resources. The UN considers the Polisario Front to be the legitimate representative of the Sahrawi people, and maintains the Sahrawis have a right to self-determination.^[10][11] Western Sahara is the last African colonial state yet to achieve independence and has been dubbed "Africa's last colony".^[12][13]

Since a UN-sponsored ceasefire agreement in 1991, most of the territory has been administered by the Moroccan government, with tacit support from France and the United States. The remainder is administered by the SADR, backed by Algeria.^[14] The only part of the coast in SADR territory is the extreme south. Internationally, countries such as Russia have taken an ambiguous and neutral position on each side's claims and pressed parties to agree on a peaceful resolution. Morocco and Polisario have sought to boost their claims by accumulating formal recognition, especially from African, Asian, and Latin American states in the developing world. The Polisario Front has won formal recognition for SADR from 46 states, and was extended membership of the African Union. Morocco has won support from several African governments and most of the Muslim world and Arab League.^{[15][unreliable source?]} In most instances, recognitions are extended or withdrawn due to a change in relations with Morocco. Until 2020, no other member state of the UN had ever recognized Moroccan sovereignty over parts of Western Sahara.^[16][17][18] In 2020, the US recognized Moroccan sovereignty over Western Sahara in exchange for Moroccan normalization of relations with Israel.^[19][20] In 2023 Israel recognized Moroccan sovereignty.^[21]

In 1984, the African Union's predecessor, the Organisation of African Unity, recognized the SADR as one of its full members, with the same status as Morocco, and Morocco protested by suspending its membership of the OAU. Morocco was readmitted to the Union in 2017, after promising conflicting claims would be resolved peacefully and it would stop building walls to extend its military control. Meanwhile, the African Union has not issued any formal statement about the border separating the sovereign territories of Morocco and the SADR. Instead, the African Union works with the UN mission to maintain the ceasefire and reach a peace agreement. The African Union provides a peacekeeping contingent to the UN mission which is used to control a buffer zone near the de facto border walls built by Morocco.

1. ^ "World Population Prospects 2022". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
2. ^ "World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950-2100" (XSLX) ("Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)"). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
3. ^ "A/RES/35/19 – E – A/RES/35/19". Question of Western Sahara. p. 214. Retrieved 8 April 2021.
4. ^ Christian Walter; Antje von Ungern-Sternberg; Kavus Abushov (5 June 2014). Self-Determination and Secession in International Law. OUP Oxford. p. 264. ISBN 978-0-19-100692-0.
5. ^ Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division (2009). "World Population Prospects, Table A.1" (PDF). 2008 revision. United Nations. Retrieved 12 March 2009.
6. ^ Mariano Aguirre, Vers la fin du conflit au Sahara occidental, Espoirs de paix en Afrique du Nord Latine Archived 13 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine in: Le Monde diplomatique, Novembre 1997
7. ^ United Nations General Assembly (16 December 1965). "Resolutions Adopted by the General Assembly During Its Twentieth Session – Resolution 2072 (XX) – Question of Ifni and Spanish Sahara".
8. ^ ^{a b} "Milestones in the Western Sahara conflict". Archived from the original on 27 February 2012.
9. ^ González Campo, Julio. "Documento de Trabajo núm. 15 DT-2004. Las pretensiones de Marruecos sobre los territorios españoles en el norte de África (1956–2002)" (PDF) (in Spanish). Real Instituto Elcano. p. 6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016.
10. ^ Stefan Gänzle; Benjamin Leruth; Jarle Trondal (15 November 2019). Differentiated Integration and Disintegration in a Post-Brexit Era. Taylor & Francis. p. 191. ISBN 978-0-429-64884-7.
11. ^ "United Nations General Assembly Resolution 34/37, The Question of Western Sahara". undocs.org. United Nations. 21 November 1979. A/RES/34/37. Retrieved 28 March 2017.
12. ^ "Western Sahara: A Rare Look Inside Africa's Last Colony as U.S. Recognizes Moroccan Occupation". Democracy Now!. 4 December 2020. Retrieved 1 November 2023.
13. ^ Connett, David (23 January 2016). "Africa's last colony has taken its struggle for self-determination to European courts". The Independent. Retrieved 3 November 2023.
14. ^ Baehr, Peter R. The United Nations at the End of the 1990s. 1999, page 129.
15. ^ "Arab League Withdraws Inaccurate Moroccan maps". Arabic News, Regional-Morocco, Politics. 17 December 1998. Archived from the original on 22 October 2013.
16. ^ "Report of the Secretary-General on the situation concerning Western Sahara (paragraph 37, p. 10)". 2 March 1993. Retrieved 4 October 2014.
17. ^ Watch, Western Sahara Resource. "Western Sahara not part of EFTA-Morocco free trade agreement – wsrw.org". www.wsrw.org. Archived from the original on 28 December 2016. Retrieved 8 February 2017.
18. ^ "International law allows the recognition of Western Sahara – Stockholm Center for International Law and Justice". 7 November 2015.
19. ^ Magid, Jacob (10 December 2020). "'Historic decision': Israel and Morocco agree on full ties 'as soon as possible'". Times of Israel. Retrieved 10 December 2020.
20. ^ "Joint Declaration of the Kingdom of Morocco, The United States of America and the State of Israel" (PDF).
21. ^ Eljechtimi, Ahmed (17 July 2023). "Israel recognises Moroccan sovereignty over Western Sahara". Reuters. Retrieved 19 July 2023.

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15 November 1315 – Battle of Morgarten: The Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft ambushes the army of Leopold I.

Battle of Morgarten

1315 battle during the creation of the Swiss Confederacy

47°05′24″N 8°37′59″E / 47.090°N 8.633°E / 47.090; 8.633

The Battle of Morgarten took place on 15 November 1315, when troops of Schwyz, supported by their allies of Uri and Unterwalden, ambushed an Austrian army under the command of Leopold I, Duke of Austria on the shores of Lake Ägeri, in the territory of Schwyz.

After a brief close-quarters battle, the Austrian army was routed, with numerous slain or drowned.^[1][2] The Swiss victory consolidated the League of the Three Forest Cantons, which formed the core of the Old Swiss Confederacy.

1. ^ ^{a b c d e} The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. 2010. p. 31.
2. ^ ^{a b c d} Morgarten War in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland.

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16 November 1945 – UNESCO is founded.

UNESCO

Specialised agency of the United Nations

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)^[a] is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) with the aim of promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture.^[2][3] It has 194 member states and 12 associate members,^[4] as well as partners in the non-governmental, intergovernmental and private sector.^[5] Headquartered in Paris, France, UNESCO has 53 regional field offices^[6] and 199 national commissions.^[7][8]

UNESCO was founded in 1945 as the successor to the League of Nations' International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation.^[9] Its constitution establishes the agency's goals, governing structure, and operating framework.^[10] UNESCO's founding mission, which was shaped by the events of World War II, is to advance peace, sustainable development and human rights by facilitating collaboration and dialogue among nations.^[10] It pursues this objective through five major programme areas: education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and communication/information. UNESCO sponsors projects that improve literacy, provide technical training and education, advance science, protect independent media and press freedom, preserve regional and cultural history, and promote cultural diversity.^[11][12][13]

UNESCO's activities have broadened over the years. It assists in the translation and dissemination of world literature, helps establish and secure World Heritage Sites of cultural and natural importance, works to bridge the worldwide digital divide, and creates inclusive knowledge societies through information and communication.^[14] UNESCO has launched several initiatives and global movements, such as Education For All.

UNESCO is governed by the General Conference composed of member states and associate members, which meets biannually to set the agency's programs and budget. It also elects members of the executive board, which manages UNESCO's work, and appoints every four years a Director-General, who serves as UNESCO's chief administrator. UNESCO is a member of the United Nations Sustainable Development Group,^[15] a coalition of UN agencies and organizations aimed at fulfilling the Sustainable Development Goals.

1. ^ "UNESCO". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 25 September 2013. Retrieved 25 September 2013.
2. ^ "Introducing UNESCO". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 18 August 2011. Retrieved 8 August 2011.
3. ^ "UNESCO history". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 9 April 2010. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
4. ^ "List of UNESCO members and associates". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 15 August 2022. Retrieved 23 August 2022.
5. ^ "Partnerships". UNESCO. 25 June 2013. Archived from the original on 23 August 2020. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
6. ^ "Field offices". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 17 August 2020. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
7. ^ "National Commissions". UNESCO. 28 September 2012. Archived from the original on 22 August 2020. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
8. ^ "About UNESCO Office for the Pacific States". UNESCO. 1 August 2019. Retrieved 24 July 2023.
9. ^ Grandjean, Martin (2018). Les réseaux de la coopération intellectuelle. La Société des Nations comme actrice des échanges scientifiques et culturels dans l'entre-deux-guerres [The Networks of Intellectual Cooperation. The League of Nations as an Actor of the Scientific and Cultural Exchanges in the Inter-War Period]. Lausanne: Université de Lausanne. Archived from the original on 12 September 2018. Retrieved 5 April 2019. (English summary Archived 22 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine).
10. ^ ^{a b} "UNESCO. General Conference, 39th, 2017 [892]". UNESCO Digital Library. Archived from the original on 9 April 2020. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
11. ^ "MOFA: Project list of The UNESCO Japanese Funds-in-Trust for the Capacity-building of Human Resources". mofa.go.jp. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
12. ^ "Sponsors". climats-bourgogne.com. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
13. ^ "Sponsors and Contributors". wcrp-climate.org. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
14. ^ "UNESCO • General Conference; 34th; Medium-term Strategy, 2008–2013; 2007" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 8 August 2011.
15. ^ "UNDG Members". United Nations Development Group. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 8 August 2010.

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17 November 1855 – David Livingstone becomes the first European to see the Victoria Falls in what is now present-day Zambia-Zimbabwe.

David Livingstone

British colonialist and missionary to Africa (1813–1873)

For other people named David Livingstone, see David Livingstone (disambiguation).

David Livingstone FRGS FRS (/ˈlɪvɪŋstən/; 19 March 1813 – 1 May 1873) was a Scottish physician, Congregationalist, pioneer Christian missionary^[2] with the London Missionary Society, and an explorer in Africa. Livingstone was married to Mary Moffat Livingstone, from the prominent 18th-century Moffatt missionary family.^[3] Livingstone came to have a mythic status that operated on a number of interconnected levels: Protestant missionary martyr, working-class "rags-to-riches" inspirational story, scientific investigator and explorer, imperial reformer, anti-slavery crusader, and advocate of British commercial and colonial expansion. As a result, Livingstone became one of the most popular British heroes of the late 19th-century Victorian era.

Livingstone's fame as an explorer and his obsession with learning the sources of the Nile River was founded on the belief that if he could solve that age-old mystery, his fame would give him the influence to end the East African Arab–Swahili slave trade. "The Nile sources", he told a friend, "are valuable only as a means of opening my mouth with power among men. It is this power [with] which I hope to remedy an immense evil."^[4] His subsequent exploration of the central African watershed was the culmination of the classic period of European geographical discovery and colonial penetration of Africa. At the same time, his missionary travels, "disappearance", and eventual death in Africa‍—‌and subsequent glorification as a posthumous national hero in 1874‍—‌led to the founding of several major central African Christian missionary initiatives carried forward in the era of the European "Scramble for Africa".^[5]

1. ^ "David Livingstone (1813–1873)". BBC - History - Historic Figures. 2014. Retrieved 12 July 2018.
2. ^ Easton, Mark (3 September 2017). "Why don't many British tourists visit Victoria Falls?". BBC News. Retrieved 12 July 2018.
3. ^ Bayly, Paul (2013). David Livingstone, Africa's greatest explorer : the man, the missionary and the myth. Stroud. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-78155-333-6. OCLC 853507173.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
4. ^ Jeal 2013, p. 289.
5. ^ Mackenzie, John M. (1990). "David Livingstone: The Construction of the Myth". In Walker, Graham; Gallagher, Tom (eds.). Sermons and battle hymns: Protestant popular culture in modern Scotland. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-0217-9.

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18 November 326 – The old St. Peter's Basilica is consecrated.

Old St. Peter's Basilica

Church in Rome, Papal States

Old St. Peter's Basilica was the church buildings that stood, from the 4th to 16th centuries, where St. Peter's Basilica stands today in Vatican City. Construction of the basilica, built over the historical site of the Circus of Nero, began during the reign of Roman Emperor Constantine I. The name "old St. Peter's Basilica" has been used since the construction of the current basilica to distinguish the two buildings.^[1]

1. ^ Boorsch, Suzanne (Winter 1982–1983). "The Building of the Vatican: The Papacy and Architecture". The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin. 40 (3): 4–8.
2. ^ Reardon, 2004. p. 274

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19 November 1977 – TAP Portugal Flight 425 crashes in the Madeira Islands, killing 130.

TAP Portugal Flight 425

Redirect to:

• TAP Flight 425

• From a page move: This is a redirect from a page that has been moved (renamed). This page was kept as a redirect to avoid breaking links, both internal and external, that may have been made to the old page name.

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20 November 1969 – Occupation of Alcatraz: Native American activists seize control of Alcatraz Island until being ousted by the U.S. Government on June 11, 1971.

Occupation of Alcatraz

American Indian protest in 1969 - 1971

"Indians of All Tribes" redirects here. For the Seattle organization, see United Indians of All Tribes.

The Occupation of Alcatraz (November 20, 1969 – June 11, 1971) was a 19-month long protest when 89 Native Americans and their supporters occupied Alcatraz Island. The protest was led by Richard Oakes, LaNada Means, and others, while John Trudell served as spokesman. The group lived on the island together until the protest was forcibly ended by the U.S. government.

The protest group chose the name Indians of All Tribes (IAT) for themselves.^[1] IAT claimed that, under the Treaty of Fort Laramie between the U.S. and the Lakota tribe, all retired, abandoned, or out-of-use federal land was to be returned to the Indigenous peoples who once occupied it. As Alcatraz penitentiary had been closed on March 21, 1963, and the island had been declared surplus federal property in 1964, a number of Red Power activists felt that the island qualified for a reclamation by Indians.

The Occupation of Alcatraz had a brief effect on federal Indian Termination policies and established a precedent for Indian activism. Oakes was shot to death in 1972, and the American Indian Movement was later targeted by the federal government and the FBI in COINTELPRO operations.

1. ^ Kelly, Casey Ryan (2014). "Détournement, Decolonization, and the American Indian Occupation of Alcatraz Island (1969–1971)". Rhetoric Society Quarterly. 44 (2): 168–190. doi:10.1080/02773945.2014.888464. S2CID 143586269.

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21 November 1996 – Humberto Vidal explosion: Thirty-three people die when a Humberto Vidal shoe shop explodes.

Humberto Vidal explosion

Explosion in Río Piedras, Puerto Rico in 1996

The Humberto Vidal explosion (sometimes also referred to as the Río Piedras explosion) was a gas explosion that occurred on November 21, 1996 at the Humberto Vidal shoe store in Río Piedras, Puerto Rico. The explosion killed 33 and wounded 69 others when the building collapsed.^[3] It is one of the deadliest disasters to have occurred on the island.

1. ^ "Propane Gas Explosion Rio Piedras, San Juan, Puerto Rico, November 21, 1996". www.ntsb.gov. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
2. ^ "Frontline: Puerto Rico Gas Explosion: Humberto Vidal Explosion". Seconds From Disaster on National Geographic. 26 October 2010. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
3. ^ "A 20 años de la tragedia en Río Piedras" (in Spanish). November 21, 2016. Retrieved November 21, 2016.

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22 November 1986 – Mike Tyson defeats Trevor Berbick to become youngest Heavyweight champion in boxing history.

Mike Tyson

American boxer and media personality (born 1966)

This article is about the American boxer and media personality. For other people named Mike Tyson, see Mike Tyson (disambiguation).

Michael Gerard Tyson (born June 30, 1966) is an American former professional boxer who competed from 1985 to 2005. Nicknamed "Iron Mike"^[4] and "Kid Dynamite" in his early career, and later known as "The Baddest Man on the Planet",^[5] Tyson is regarded as one of the greatest heavyweight boxers of all time.^[6] He reigned as the undisputed world heavyweight champion from 1987 to 1990. Tyson won his first 19 professional fights by knockout, 12 of them in the first round. Claiming his first belt at 20 years, 4 months, and 22 days old, Tyson holds the record as the youngest boxer ever to win a heavyweight title.^[7] He was the first heavyweight boxer to simultaneously hold the WBA, WBC and IBF titles, as well as the only heavyweight to unify them in succession. The following year, Tyson became the lineal champion when he knocked out Michael Spinks in 91 seconds of the first round.^[8] In 1990, Tyson was knocked out by underdog Buster Douglas^[9] in one of the biggest upsets in boxing history.

In 1992, Tyson was convicted of rape and sentenced to six years in prison, although he was released on parole after three years.^[10][11][12] After his release in 1995, he engaged in a series of comeback fights, regaining the WBA and WBC titles in 1996 to join Floyd Patterson, Muhammad Ali, Tim Witherspoon, Evander Holyfield and George Foreman as the only men in boxing history to have regained a heavyweight championship after losing it. After being stripped of the WBC title in the same year, Tyson lost the WBA title to Evander Holyfield by an eleventh round stoppage. Their 1997 rematch ended when Tyson was disqualified for biting Holyfield's ears, one bite notoriously being strong enough to remove a portion of his right ear. In 2002, Tyson fought for the world heavyweight title, losing by knockout to Lennox Lewis.

Tyson was known for his ferocious and intimidating boxing style as well as his controversial behavior inside and outside the ring, which he explained was inspired by Sonny Liston, a boxer who is widely regarded as the most intimidating man in the history of boxing.^[13][14] With a knockout-to-win percentage of 88%,^[15] he was ranked 16th on The Ring magazine's list of 100 greatest punchers of all time,^[16] and first on ESPN's list of "The Hardest Hitters in Heavyweight History".^[17] Sky Sports described him as "perhaps the most ferocious fighter to step into a professional ring".^[18] He has been inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame and the World Boxing Hall of Fame.

1. ^ Lewis, Darren (November 15, 2005). "Mike Tyson Exclusive: No More Mr Bad Ass". The Daily Mirror. Archived from the original on May 27, 2014. Retrieved April 25, 2014.
2. ^ J, Jenna (August 22, 2013). "Mike Tyson: 'I always thought of myself as a big guy, as a giant, I never thought I was five foot ten'". Doghouse Boxing. Archived from the original on August 26, 2013. Retrieved April 25, 2014.
3. ^ HBO Sports tale of the tape prior to the Lennox Lewis fight.
4. ^ McIntyre, Jay (September 1, 2014). ""Iron," Mike Tyson – At His Sharpest". Boxingnews24.com. Archived from the original on October 6, 2014. Retrieved September 26, 2014.
5. ^ Boyd, Todd (2008). African Americans and Popular Culture. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. p. 235. ISBN 9780313064081. Archived from the original on June 18, 2013. Retrieved September 12, 2012.
6. ^ Eisele, Andrew (2007). "50 Greatest Boxers of All-Time". About.com. Archived from the original on July 7, 2011. Retrieved June 17, 2010.
7. ^ "At only 20 years of age, Mike Tyson became the youngest heavyweight boxing champion of the world". Archived from the original on February 17, 2015. Retrieved March 18, 2016.
8. ^ ""Iron" Mike Tyson". Cyber Boxing Zone. Archived from the original on February 19, 2010. Retrieved November 20, 2016.
9. ^ Mike Tyson vs Buster Douglas, 1990, archived from the original on May 25, 2021, retrieved May 25, 2021
10. ^ Holley, David (September 16, 2005). "Tyson a Heavyweight in Chechnya". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on September 2, 2017. Retrieved July 21, 2017.
11. ^ "Майк Тайсон в гостях у Рамзана Кадырова (видео)" Archived August 28, 2017, at the Wayback Machine (in Russian). NTV. Gazprom-Media. Retrieved July 21, 2017
12. ^ "Mike Tyson". biography.com. Archived from the original on August 10, 2016. Retrieved August 8, 2016.
13. ^ Sonny Liston, The Champion That Nobody Wanted. A&E Biography. July 25, 2001. Event occurs at 12:38. Retrieved November 1, 2023 – via Boxing Royalty (YouTube). (former boxer Chuck Wepner speaking) Nobody ever hit me like that guy. Every time he hit you, he broke something. I went through ten rounds with him, and broke my nose, my left cheekbone, and gave me 72 stitches. I was an intimidator until I fought Sonny Liston.
14. ^ "The Top 12 All-Time Most Intimidating Fighters In Boxing History". The Fight City. March 29, 2018. Retrieved July 18, 2023.
15. ^ "BoxRec: Mike Tyson". boxrec.com. Archived from the original on May 21, 2021. Retrieved June 12, 2021.
16. ^ Eisele, Andrew (2003). "Ring Magazine's 100 Greatest Punchers". About.com. Archived from the original on July 7, 2011. Retrieved March 10, 2010.
17. ^ Houston, Graham (2007). "The hardest hitters in heavyweight history". ESPN. Bristol, Connecticut. Archived from the original on May 1, 2009. Retrieved March 10, 2010.
18. ^ "Mike Tyson? Sonny Liston? Who is the scariest boxer ever?". Sky Sports. Archived from the original on October 31, 2015. Retrieved October 31, 2015.

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23 November 1889 – The first jukebox goes into operation at the Palais Royale Saloon in San Francisco.

Jukebox

Device to play music

For other uses, see Jukebox (disambiguation).

A Wurlitzer Zodiac 3500 jukebox
(1971)

The jukebox when opened

The jukebox's internal workings

A jukebox is a partially automated music-playing device, usually a coin-operated machine, that plays a patron's selection from self-contained media. The classic jukebox has buttons with letters and numbers on them, which are used to select specific records. Some may use compact discs instead. Disc changers are similar devices for home use; they are small enough to fit on a shelf and can hold up to hundreds of discs, allowing them to be easily removed, replaced, or inserted by the user.

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24 November 1429 – Hundred Years' War: Joan of Arc unsuccessfully besieges La Charité.

Hundred Years' War

Medieval Anglo-French conflicts, 1337–1453

For the earlier Anglo-French conflict, see Capetian–Plantagenet rivalry. For the later Anglo-French conflict, see Second Hundred Years' War. For the war between the Kingdom of Croatia and the Ottoman Empire, see Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War.

The Hundred Years' War (French: Guerre de Cent Ans; 1337–1453) was a series of armed conflicts fought between the kingdoms of England and France during the Late Middle Ages. It originated from English claims to the French throne initially made by Edward III of England. The war grew into a broader military, economic and political struggle involving factions from across Western Europe, fueled by emerging nationalism on both sides. The periodization of the war typically charts it as taking place over 116 years. However, it was an intermittent conflict which was frequently interrupted by external factors, such as the Black Death, and several years of truces.

The Hundred Years' War was a significant conflict in the Middle Ages. During the war, five generations of kings from two rival dynasties fought for the throne of France, which was then the dominant kingdom in Western Europe. The war had a lasting effect on European history: both sides produced innovations in military technology and tactics, including professional standing armies and artillery, that permanently changed European warfare; chivalry, which reached its height during the conflict, subsequently declined. Stronger national identities took root in both kingdoms, which became more centralized and gradually emerged as global powers.^[1]

The term "Hundred Years' War" was adopted by later historians as a historiographical periodisation to encompass dynastically related conflicts, constructing the longest military conflict in European history. The war is commonly divided into three phases separated by truces: the Edwardian War (1337–1360), the Caroline War (1369–1389), and the Lancastrian War (1415–1453). Each side drew many allies into the conflict, with English forces initially prevailing; however, the French forces under the House of Valois ultimately retained control over the Kingdom of France. The French and English monarchies thereafter remained separate, despite the monarchs of England (later Britain) styling themselves as sovereigns of France until 1802.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Guizot, Francois (1997). The History of Civilization in Europe; translated by William Hazlitt 1846. Indiana, US: Liberty Fund. pp. 204, 205. ISBN 978-0-86597-837-9.

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25 November 1915 – Albert Einstein presents the field equations of general relativity to the Prussian Academy of Sciences.

Introduction to general relativity

Theory of gravity by Albert Einstein

This article is a non-technical introduction to the subject. For the main encyclopedia article, see General relativity.

General relativity is a theory of gravitation developed by Albert Einstein between 1907 and 1915. The theory of general relativity says that the observed gravitational effect between masses results from their warping of spacetime.

By the beginning of the 20th century, Newton's law of universal gravitation had been accepted for more than two hundred years as a valid description of the gravitational force between masses. In Newton's model, gravity is the result of an attractive force between massive objects. Although even Newton was troubled by the unknown nature of that force, the basic framework was extremely successful at describing motion.

Experiments and observations show that Einstein's description of gravitation accounts for several effects that are unexplained by Newton's law, such as minute anomalies in the orbits of Mercury and other planets. General relativity also predicts novel effects of gravity, such as gravitational waves, gravitational lensing and an effect of gravity on time known as gravitational time dilation. Many of these predictions have been confirmed by experiment or observation, most recently gravitational waves.

General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern astrophysics. It provides the foundation for the current understanding of black holes, regions of space where the gravitational effect is strong enough that even light cannot escape. Their strong gravity is thought to be responsible for the intense radiation emitted by certain types of astronomical objects (such as active galactic nuclei or microquasars). General relativity is also part of the framework of the standard Big Bang model of cosmology.

Although general relativity is not the only relativistic theory of gravity, it is the simplest one that is consistent with the experimental data. Nevertheless, a number of open questions remain, the most fundamental of which is how general relativity can be reconciled with the laws of quantum physics to produce a complete and self-consistent theory of quantum gravity.

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26 November 2004 – Ruzhou School massacre: A man stabs and kills eight people and seriously wounds another four in a school dormitory in Ruzhou, China.

Yan Yanming

Redirect to:

• List of mass stabbing incidents (before 2010)#Ruzhou, China (2004)

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27 November 2001 – A hydrogen atmosphere is discovered on the extrasolar planet Osiris by the Hubble Space Telescope, the first atmosphere detected on an extrasolar planet.

HD 209458 b

Gas giant exoplanet orbiting HD 209458

HD 209458 b is an exoplanet that orbits the solar analog HD 209458 in the constellation Pegasus, some 157 light-years (48 parsecs) from the Solar System. The radius of the planet's orbit is 0.047 AU (7.0 million km; 4.4 million mi), or one-eighth the radius of Mercury's orbit (0.39 AU (36 million mi; 58 million km)). This small radius results in a year that is 3.5 Earth-days long and an estimated surface temperature of about 1,000 °C (1,800 °F; 1,300 K). Its mass is 220 times that of Earth (0.69 Jupiter masses) and its volume is some 2.5 times greater than that of Jupiter. The high mass and volume of HD 209458 b indicate that it is a gas giant.

HD 209458 b represents a number of milestones in exoplanetary research. It was the first of many categories:

• a transiting extrasolar planet
• The first planet detected through more than one method
• an extrasolar planet known to have an atmosphere
• an extrasolar planet observed to have an evaporating hydrogen atmosphere
• an extrasolar planet found to have an atmosphere containing the elements oxygen and carbon
• one of the first two extrasolar planets to be directly observed spectroscopically
• The first extrasolar gas giant to have its superstorm measured
• the first planet to have its orbital speed measured, determining its mass directly.^[6]

Based on the application of newer theoretical models, as of April 2007, it is thought to be the first extrasolar planet found to have water vapor in its atmosphere.^{[7][8][9][10]}

In July 2014, NASA announced finding very dry atmospheres on HD 209458 b and two other exoplanets (HD 189733 b and WASP-12b) orbiting Sun-like stars.^[11]

HD 209458 b has been nicknamed "Osiris" after the Egyptian god.^[12][13] This nickname has been acknowledged by the IAU, but as of 2023^[update] it has not yet been approved as an official proper name.^[14]

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Charbonneau2000 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Henry2000 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Bonomo2017 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Brandeker2022 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Zellem2014 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference Ignas was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Space.com water was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ Signs of water seen on planet outside solar system, by Will Dunham, Reuters, Tue Apr 10, 2007 8:44PM EDT
9. ^ Cite error: The named reference NASA-20131203 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference ApJ-20130910 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Cite error: The named reference NASA-20140724 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference Vidal-Madjar2004 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference Vidal-Madjar2008 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
14. ^ Cite error: The named reference IAUnaming was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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28 November 1785 – The Treaty of Hopewell is signed.

Treaty of Hopewell

Treaties between the U.S. and southeastern Indian tribes

Three agreements, each known as a Treaty of Hopewell, were signed between representatives of the Congress of the United States and the Cherokee, Choctaw, and Chickasaw peoples. They were negotiated and signed at the Hopewell plantation in South Carolina over 45 days during the winter of 1785–86.^[1]

The treaties were signed at the plantation owned by General Andrew Pickens, which the treaty texts refer to as "Hopewell on the Keowee". Anthropologist James Mooney records that "It was situated on the northern edge of the present Anderson county, on the east side of Keowee River, opposite and a short distance below the entrance of Little River, and about three miles from the present Pendleton. In the sight of it, on the opposite side of Keowee, was the old Cherokee town of Seneca, destroyed by the Americans in 1776."^[2]

The chief provision of the treaties was defining boundaries between sovereign tribal lands and lands open to settlement; other boilerplate provisions included exchange of prisoners, prohibition of settlement on tribal lands, rendition of criminals, punishment of crimes against Native Americans, restrictions on retaliation by either side, regulation of trade, and other minor provisions. The order and content of the sections in each Treaty were almost identical with the exception of an article in the Cherokee treaty providing for a Cherokee delegate to congress (reaffirmed in 1835 Treaty of New Echota), a provision that as of Sept. 2022 has yet to be fulfilled by the United States.

Despite affixing their signatures to the treaties, none of the Native American tribes recognized the sovereignty of the United States over their ancestral lands.

1. ^ r2WPadmin. "Hopewell, Treaty of". Mississippi Encyclopedia. Retrieved November 24, 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
2. ^ Mooney, James; Smithsonian Institution. Bureau of American Ethnology. (1902). Myths of the Cherokee. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Retrieved March 22, 2021.

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29 November 1847 – Whitman massacre: Missionaries Dr. Marcus Whitman, his wife Narcissa, and 15 others are killed by Cayuse and Umatilla Indians, causing the Cayuse War.

Whitman massacre

1847 murder of American missionaries by Cayuse Native Americans near Walla Walla, Washington

The Whitman massacre (also known as the Whitman killings and the Tragedy at Waiilatpu)^[1][2] refers to the killing of American missionaries Marcus and Narcissa Whitman, along with eleven others, on November 29, 1847. They were killed by a small group of Cayuse men who accused Whitman of poisoning 200 Cayuse in his medical care during an outbreak of measles that included the Whitman household.^[3] The killings occurred at the Whitman Mission at the junction of the Walla Walla River and Mill Creek in what is now southeastern Washington near Walla Walla. The massacre became a decisive episode in the U.S. settlement of the Pacific Northwest, causing the United States Congress to take action declaring the territorial status of the Oregon Country. The Oregon Territory was established on August 14, 1848, to protect the white settlers.

The massacre is usually ascribed to the inability of Whitman, a physician, to prevent the measles outbreak. Cayuse in at least three villages held Whitman responsible for the widespread epidemic that killed hundreds of Cayuse while leaving settlers comparatively unscathed. Some Cayuse accused settlers of poisoning them so they could take their land.^[2][4] In the trial of five Cayuse accused of the killing, they used the defense that it was tribal law to kill the medicine man who gives bad medicine.^[5]

Today, the Cayuse are one of three tribes comprising the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation (CTUIR).

1. ^ "Whitman Mission" (PDF). National Park Service. Retrieved April 6, 2022.
2. ^ ^{a b} Tate, Cassandra (2020). Unsettled ground : the Whitman Massacre and its shifting legacy in the American West. Seattle, WA. ISBN 978-1-63217-250-1. OCLC 1127788843.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
3. ^ Mann, Barbara Alice (2009). The Tainted Gift: The Disease Method of Frontier Expansion. ABC Clio.
4. ^ Harden, Blaine (July 15, 2021). "The fraud that inspired the settling of the Pacific Northwest". Columbia Insight. Retrieved February 24, 2022.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference sos.oregon.gov was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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30 November 1982 – Michael Jackson's second solo album, Thriller is released worldwide. It will become the best-selling record album in history.

Thriller (Michael Jackson album)

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1 December 1948 – Taman Shud Case: The body of an unidentified man is found in Adelaide, Australia, involving an undetectable poison and a secret code in a very rare book; the case remains unsolved and is "one of Australia's most profound mysteries."

Taman Shud Case

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2 December 1908 – Puyi becomes Emperor of China at the age of two.

Puyi

Emperor of China, Puppet Leader of Manchukuo

This article is about the last emperor of China. For the football player, see Puyi (footballer).

This article contains Manchu text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Manchu alphabet.

Puyi^[c] (7 February 1906 – 17 October 1967) was the final emperor of China, reigning as the eleventh and final monarch of the Qing dynasty. He became emperor at the age of two in 1908, but was forced to abdicate in 1912 as a result of Xinhai Revolution at the age of six. During his first reign, he was known as the Xuantong Emperor, with his era name meaning "proclamation of unity".

Puyi was briefly restored to the Qing throne by the loyalist general Zhang Xun from 1 July to 12 July 1917. He was first wed to Empress Wanrong in 1922 in an arranged marriage. In 1924, he was expelled from the Forbidden City and found refuge in Tianjin, where he began to court both the warlords fighting for control over parts of the weak Republic of China and the Japanese who had long desired control of China. The Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1932 resulted in the puppet state of Manchukuo being established by Japan, who chose Puyi to become its chief executive, using the era name "Datong".

In 1934, he was declared emperor of Manchukuo, prompting writer Wen Yuan-ning to quip that Puyi "holds the world's record for the number of times that any mortal may ascend and abdicate the throne."^[1] Puyi nominally reigned under the era name "Kangde" until the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1945. This third stint as emperor saw him as a puppet of Japan; he signed most edicts the Japanese gave him. During this period, he largely resided in the Salt Tax Palace, where he regularly ordered his servants beaten. His first wife's opium addiction consumed her during these years, and they were generally distant. He took on numerous concubines, as well as male lovers. With the surrender of Japan in 1945, Puyi fled the capital and was eventually captured by the Soviets who had occupied the country; he was extradited to the People's Republic of China in 1950. After his capture, he never saw his first wife again; she died of starvation in a Chinese prison in 1946.

Puyi was a defendant at the Tokyo Trials and was later imprisoned and re-educated as a war criminal for 10 years. After his release in 1959, he wrote his memoirs (with the help of a ghost writer) and became a titular member of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference and the National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China. His time in prison greatly changed him, and he expressed deep regret for his actions while he was emperor. He died in 1967 and was ultimately buried near the Western Qing tombs in a commercial cemetery.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Wen, Yuan-ning (2018). "Emperor Malgre Lui" (Feb. 8, 1934), in Imperfect Understanding: Intimate Portraits of Modern Chinese Celebrities. Cambria Press. p. 117.

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3 December 1971 – Indo-Pakistani War of 1971: Pakistan launches a pre-emptive strike against India and a full scale war begins claiming hundreds of lives.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971

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4 December 1954 – The first Burger King is opened in Miami, Florida.

Burger King

Global chain of hamburger fast food restaurants headquartered in Florida

This article is about the restaurant chain. For other uses, see Burger King (disambiguation).

Burger King Corporation (BK, stylized in all caps) is an American multinational chain of hamburger fast food restaurants. Headquartered in Miami-Dade County, Florida, the company was founded in 1953 as Insta-Burger King, a Jacksonville, Florida–based restaurant chain. After Insta-Burger King ran into financial difficulties, its two Miami-based franchisees David Edgerton (1927–2018) and James McLamore (1926–1996) purchased the company in 1959 and renamed it "Burger King".^[5] Over the next half-century, the company changed hands four times and its third set of owners, a partnership between TPG Capital, Bain Capital, and Goldman Sachs Capital Partners, took it public in 2002. In late 2010, 3G Capital of Brazil acquired a majority stake in the company in a deal valued at US$3.26 billion. The new owners promptly initiated a restructuring of the company to reverse its fortunes. 3G, along with its partner Berkshire Hathaway, eventually merged the company with the Canadian-based doughnut chain Tim Hortons under the auspices of a new Canadian-based parent company named Restaurant Brands International.

The 1970s were the "Golden Age" of the company's advertising, but beginning in the mid-1980s, Burger King advertising began losing focus. A series of less successful advertising campaigns created by a procession of advertising agencies continued for the next two decades. In 2003, Burger King hired the Miami-based advertising agency Crispin Porter + Bogusky (CP+B), which completely reorganized its advertising with a series of new campaigns centered on a redesigned Burger King character nicknamed "The King", accompanied by a new online presence. While highly successful, some of CP+B's commercials were derided for perceived sexism or cultural insensitivity. Burger King's new owner, 3G Capital, later terminated the relationship with CP+B in 2011 and moved its advertising to McGarryBowen to begin a new product-oriented campaign with expanded demographic targeting.

Burger King's menu has expanded from a basic offering of burgers, french fries, sodas, and milkshakes to a larger and more diverse set of products. In 1957, the "Whopper" became the first major addition to the menu, and it has since become Burger King's signature product. Conversely, Burger King has introduced many products that have failed to catch hold in the market. Some of these failures in the United States have seen success in foreign markets, where Burger King has also tailored its menu for regional tastes. From 2002 to 2010, Burger King aggressively targeted the 18–34 male demographic with larger products that often carried correspondingly large amounts of unhealthy fats and trans-fats. This tactic would eventually damage the company's financial underpinnings and cast a negative pall on its earnings. Beginning in 2011, the company began to move away from its previous male-oriented menu and introduce new menu items, product reformulations, and packaging, as part of its current owner 3G Capital's restructuring plans of the company.^[6]

As of December 31, 2018, Burger King reported that it had 17,796 outlets in 100 countries.^[7][8] Of these, nearly half are located in the United States, and 99.7% are privately owned and operated,^[8] with its new owners moving to an almost entirely franchised model in 2013. Burger King has historically used several variations of franchising to expand its operations. The manner in which the company licenses its franchisees varies depending on the region, with some regional franchises, known as master franchises, responsible for selling franchise sub-licenses on the company's behalf. Burger King's relationship with its franchises has not always been harmonious. Occasional spats between the two have caused numerous issues, and in several instances, the relations between the company and its licensees have degenerated into precedent-setting court cases. Burger King's Australian franchise Hungry Jack's is the only franchise to operate under a different name due to a trademark dispute with a similarly-named restaurant in Adelaide, South Australia and a series of legal cases between the two.^[9]

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f} "2021 Annual Report (Form 10-K)". Restaurant Brands International. February 23, 2022. Retrieved September 8, 2022 – via SEC.
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f} "Restaurant Brands International Inc. Reports Full Year and Fourth Quarter 2021 Results". Restaurant Brands International IR. February 15, 2022. Retrieved September 8, 2022.
3. ^ "RBI 10K report" (PDF). rbi.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 18, 2019. Retrieved April 1, 2019.
4. ^ "Restaurant Brand International: Burger King". rbi.com. Retrieved April 1, 2019.^{[permanent dead link]}
5. ^ "How Burger King Went From "Insta-Burger King" to Fast-Food Royalty". Yahoo. December 4, 2018. Retrieved January 2, 2022.
6. ^ "Burger King Holdings, Inc. Reports First Quarter 2012 Results" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 11, 2017.
7. ^ "RESTAURANT BRANDS INTERNATIONAL INC" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 18, 2019. Retrieved March 25, 2019.
8. ^ ^{a b} "The World's Largest Fast Food Restaurant Chains". Archived from the original on June 12, 2018. Retrieved June 9, 2018.
9. ^ Andrew Terry; Heatrher Forrest (2008). "Where's the Beef? Why Burger King Is Hungry Jack's in Australia and Other Complications in Building a Global Franchise Brand". Northwestern Journal of International Law and Business, 2008. 28 (2): 171–214. ISSN 0196-3228.

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5 December 1848 – California Gold Rush: In a message to the United States Congress, U.S. President James K. Polk confirms that large amounts of gold had been discovered in California.

California Gold Rush

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6 December 1884 – The Washington Monument in Washington, D.C., is completed.

Washington Monument

U.S. national memorial in Washington, D.C.

For other uses, see Washington Monument (disambiguation).

The Washington Monument is an obelisk on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., built to commemorate George Washington, a Founding Father of the United States, victorious commander-in-chief of the Continental Army from 1775 to 1783 in the American Revolutionary War, and the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797. Standing east of the Reflecting Pool and the Lincoln Memorial,^[2] the monument is made of bluestone gneiss for the foundation and of granite for the construction.^[3] The outside facing consists, due to the interrupted building process, of three different kinds of white marble:^[4] in the lower third, marble from Baltimore County, Maryland, followed by a narrow zone of marble from Sheffield, Berkshire County, Massachusetts, and, in the upper part, the so-called Cockeysville Marble. Both "Maryland Marbles" came from the "lost” Irish Quarry Town of "New Texas".^[5] It is both the world's tallest predominantly stone structure and the world's tallest obelisk,^[A] standing 554 feet 7+11⁄32 inches (169.046 m) tall, according to U.S. National Geodetic Survey measurements in 2013–2014.^[B] It is the tallest monumental column in the world if all are measured above their pedestrian entrances.^[A] It was the world's tallest structure between 1884 and 1889, after which it was overtaken by the Eiffel Tower, in Paris. Previously, the tallest structures were Lincoln Cathedral (1311–1548; 525 ft) and Cologne Cathedral (1880–present; 515 ft).

Construction of the presidential memorial began in 1848. The construction was suspended from 1854 to 1877 due to funding challenges, a struggle for control over the Washington National Monument Society, and the American Civil War. The stone structure was completed in 1884, and the internal ironwork, the knoll, and installation of memorial stones was completed in 1888. A difference in shading of the marble, visible about 150 feet (46 m) or 27% up, shows where construction was halted and later resumed with marble from a different source. The original design was by Robert Mills from South Carolina, but construction omitted his proposed colonnade for lack of funds, and construction proceeded instead with a bare obelisk. The cornerstone was laid on July 4, 1848; the first stone was laid atop the unfinished stump on August 7, 1880; the capstone was set on December 6, 1884; the completed monument was dedicated on February 21, 1885;^[16] and it was opened October 9, 1888.

The Washington Monument is a hollow Egyptian-style stone obelisk with a 500-foot-tall (152.4 m) column surmounted by a 55-foot-tall (16.8 m) pyramidion. Its walls are 15 feet (4.6 m) thick at its base and 1+1⁄2 feet (0.46 m) thick at their top. The marble pyramidion's walls are 7 inches (18 cm) thick, supported by six arches: two between opposite walls, which cross at the center of the pyramidion, and four smaller arches in the corners. The top of the pyramidion is a large, marble capstone with a small aluminum pyramid at its apex, with inscriptions on all four sides. The bottom 150 feet (45.7 m) of the walls, built during the first phase from 1848 to 1854, are composed of a pile of bluestone gneiss rubble stones (not finished stones) held together by a large amount of mortar with a facade of semi-finished marble stones about 1+1⁄4 feet (0.4 m) thick. The upper 350 feet (106.7 m) of the walls, built in the second phase, 1880–1884, are of finished marble surface stones, half of which project into the walls, partly backed by finished granite stones.^[17]

The interior is occupied by iron stairs that spiral up the walls, with an elevator in the center, each supported by four iron columns, which do not support the stone structure. The stairs are in fifty sections, most on the north and south walls, with many long landings stretching between them along the east and west walls. These landings allowed many inscribed memorial stones of various materials and sizes to be easily viewed while the stairs were accessible (until 1976), plus one memorial stone between stairs that is difficult to view. The pyramidion has eight observation windows, two per side, and eight red aircraft warning lights, two per side. Two aluminum lightning rods, connected by the elevator support columns to groundwater, protect the monument. The monument's present foundation is 37 feet (11.3 m) thick, consisting of half of its original bluestone gneiss rubble encased in concrete. At the northeast corner of the foundation, 21 feet (6.4 m) below ground, is the marble cornerstone, including a zinc case filled with memorabilia.^[17] Fifty American flags fly on a large circle of poles centered on the monument.^[18] In 2001, a temporary screening facility was added to the entrance to prevent a terrorist attack.^[19] An earthquake in 2011 slightly damaged the monument, and it was closed until 2014.^[20] The monument was closed for elevator repairs, security upgrades, and mitigation of soil contamination in August 2016 before reopening again fully in September 2019.

1. ^ ^{a b c d} National Geodetic Survey, "2013–2014 Survey of the Washington Monument" Archived March 3, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, 2015. Horizontal coordinates converted from NAD83(2011) to WGS84(G1674), the required coordinate system for Wikipedia coordinates, via NGS Horizontal Time-Dependent Positioning, epoch 2010.0 including ellipsoidal height.
2. ^ "Foundation Statement for the National Mall and Pennsylvania Avenue National Historic Park" (PDF), National Park Service, retrieved May 20, 2010
3. ^ ^{a b} Wunsch, Aaron V. (1994). Historic American Buildings Survey, Washington Monument, HABS DC-428 (text) (PDF). National Park Service.
4. ^ Washington's Geologic Setting., Website U.S. Geological Survey, retrieved on February 13, 2024.
5. ^ Ron Cassie: Recalling the “Lost” Irish Quarry Town of Texas in Baltimore County., "Baltimore magazine", November 2022, retrieved February 13, 2024.
6. ^ ^{a b} "CTBUH Criteria for Defining and Measuring Tall Buildings". ctbuh.org.
7. ^ National Geodetic Survey, "Why does the value obtained in 2014 ... disagree with the 1884 value ...?" Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, 2015, picture of precise spot used.
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference HSR was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ ^{a b} Arzola, Robert R.; Lockett, Dana L.; Schara, Mark; Vazquez, Jose Raul (1994). Historic American Buildings Survey, Washington Monument, HABS DC-428 (drawings). National Park Service.
10. ^ "Frequently Asked Questions about the Washington Monument by the National Park Service". Nps.gov. Retrieved January 31, 2013.
11. ^ Thos. Lincoln Casey, "report of operations upon the Washington Monument for the year [1884]" in Letter from William W. Corcoran, Chairman of the Joint Commission for the Completion of the Washington Monument, transmitting the annual report of the Commission, December 19, 1884, U.S. Congressional Serial Set, Vol. 2310, 48th Congress, 2nd Session, House of Representatives Misc. Doc. 8, p. 5. Available for free in most large United States libraries in government documents or online. Establish a connection to Readex collections before clicking on link.
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference Binczewski was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ "Aerial America: Washington D.C.". Aerial America. Smithsonian channel.
14. ^ Kelly, John (June 19, 2013). "Local: The Washington Monument is tall, but is it the tallest?". Washington Post. Retrieved December 26, 2016.
15. ^ Paul Gervais Bell Jr., "Monumental Myths" Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, Southwestern Historical Quarterly, vol. 103, 2000, frontispiece–14, pp. 13–14
16. ^ Marking a people's love, an article from The New York Times published February 22, 1885.
17. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Torres was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
18. ^ Cite error: The named reference flags was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
19. ^ Cite error: The named reference screening was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
20. ^ Cite error: The named reference Earthquake was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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7 December 1975 – Indonesian invasion of East Timor: The invasion begins.

Indonesian invasion of East Timor

1975–79 military operation

The Indonesian invasion of East Timor, known in Indonesia as Operation Lotus (Indonesian: Operasi Seroja), began on 7 December 1975 when the Indonesian military (ABRI/TNI) invaded East Timor under the pretext of anti-colonialism and anti-communism to overthrow the Fretilin regime that had emerged in 1974.^[7] The overthrow of the popular and short-lived Fretilin-led government sparked a violent quarter-century occupation in which approximately 100,000–180,000 soldiers and civilians are estimated to have been killed or starved to death.^[6] The Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor documented a minimum estimate of 102,000 conflict-related deaths in East Timor throughout the entire period from 1974 to 1999, including 18,600 violent killings and 84,200 deaths from disease and starvation; Indonesian forces and their auxiliaries combined were responsible for 70% of the killings.^[8][9]

During the first months of the occupation, the Indonesian military faced heavy insurgency resistance in the mountainous interior of the island, but from 1977 to 1978, the military procured new advanced weaponry from the United States, and other countries, to destroy Fretilin's framework.^[10] The last two decades of the century saw continuous clashes between Indonesian and East Timorese groups over the status of East Timor,^[11] until 1999, when a majority of East Timorese voted overwhelmingly for independence (the alternative option being "special autonomy" while remaining part of Indonesia). After a further two and a half years of transition under the auspices of three different United Nations missions, East Timor achieved independence on 20 May 2002.^[12]

1. ^ Indonesia (1977), p. 31.
2. ^ Ginting, Selamat (17 April 2021). "Pukulan Jenderal Komando ke Perut Wartawan". Republika. Retrieved 14 March 2021. The control of the East Timor operation is in his [Widjojo Soejono] hands. ["Kendali operasi Timor Timur ada dalam genggamannya."]
3. ^ "INDONESIA INVADES". HISTORY OF EAST TIMOR. SOLIDAMOR. 2005. Archived from the original on 18 March 2005. Retrieved 30 May 2006.
4. ^ Power Kills R.J. Rummel
5. ^ Eckhardt, William, in World Military and Social Expenditures 1987–88 (12th ed., 1987) by Ruth Leger Sivard.
6. ^ ^{a b} „Chega!“-Report of Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (CAVR)
7. ^ Dennis B. Klein (18 April 2018). Societies Emerging from Conflict: The Aftermath of Atrocity. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 156–. ISBN 978-1-5275-1041-8.
8. ^ "Conflict-Related Deaths in Timor-Leste 1974–1999: The Findings of the CAVR Report Chega!" (PDF). Final Report of the Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (CAVR). Retrieved 20 March 2016.
9. ^ "Unlawful Killings and Enforced Disappearances" (PDF). Final Report of the Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (CAVR). p. 6. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
10. ^ Taylor, p. 84
11. ^ Fernandes, Clinton (2021). "Indonesia's war against East Timor: how it ended". Small Wars & Insurgencies. 32 (6): 867–886. doi:10.1080/09592318.2021.1911103. ISSN 0959-2318. S2CID 234831894.
12. ^ "New country, East Timor, is born; UN, which aided transition, vows continued help" Archived 10 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine. UN News Centre. 19 May 2002. Retrieved on 17 February 2008.

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8 December 1980 – John Lennon is murdered by Mark David Chapman in front of The Dakota in New York City.

John Lennon

English musician and member of the Beatles (1940–1980)

"Lennon" redirects here. For other uses, see Lennon (disambiguation) and John Lennon (disambiguation).

John Winston Ono Lennon^{[nb 1]} (born John Winston Lennon; 9 October 1940 – 8 December 1980) was an English singer, songwriter and musician. He gained worldwide fame as the founder, co-songwriter, co-lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist of the Beatles. His work included music, writing, drawings and film. His songwriting partnership with Paul McCartney remains the most successful in history.^[3]

Born in Liverpool, Lennon became involved in the skiffle craze as a teenager. In 1956, he formed the Quarrymen, which evolved into the Beatles in 1960. Sometimes called "the smart Beatle", Lennon initially was the group's de facto leader, a role he gradually seemed to cede to McCartney. Through his songwriting in the Beatles, he embraced myriad musical influences, initially writing and co-writing rock and pop-oriented hit songs in the band's early years, then later incorporating experimental elements into his compositions in the latter half of the Beatles' career as his songs became known for their increasing innovation. Lennon soon expanded his work into other media by participating in numerous films, including How I Won the War, and authoring In His Own Write and A Spaniard in the Works, both collections of nonsense writings and line drawings. Starting with "All You Need Is Love", his songs were adopted as anthems by the anti-war movement and the larger counterculture of the 1960s. In 1969, he started the Plastic Ono Band with his second wife, multimedia artist Yoko Ono, held the two-week-long anti-war demonstration Bed-ins for Peace and left the Beatles to embark on a solo career.

Between 1968 and 1972, Lennon and Ono collaborated on many works, including a trilogy of avant-garde albums, several more films, his solo debut John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band and the international top-10 singles "Give Peace a Chance", "Instant Karma!", "Imagine", and "Happy Xmas (War Is Over)". Moving to New York City in 1971, his criticism of the Vietnam War resulted in a three-year deportation attempt by the Nixon administration. Lennon and Ono separated from 1973 to 1975, during which time he produced Harry Nilsson's album Pussy Cats. He also had chart-topping collaborations with Elton John ("Whatever Gets You thru the Night") and David Bowie ("Fame"). Following a five-year hiatus, Lennon returned to music in 1980 with the Ono collaboration Double Fantasy. He was murdered by a Beatles fan, Mark David Chapman, three weeks after the album's release.

As a performer, writer or co-writer, Lennon had 25 number-one singles in the Billboard Hot 100 chart. Double Fantasy, his second-best-selling non-Beatles album, won the 1981 Grammy Award for Album of the Year.^[4] That year, he won the Brit Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music. In 2002, Lennon was voted eighth in a BBC history poll of the 100 Greatest Britons. Rolling Stone ranked him the fifth-greatest singer and 38th greatest artist of all time. He was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame (in 1997) and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (twice, as a member of the Beatles in 1988 and as a solo artist in 1994).

1. ^ Christgau, Robert. "John Lennon | Biography, Songs, Albums, Death, & Facts". Britannica. Retrieved 18 February 2024.
2. ^ Coleman 1984b, p. 64.
3. ^ Newman, Jason (23 August 2011). "It Takes Two: 10 Songwriting Duos That Rocked Music History". Billboard. Archived from the original on 23 June 2018. Retrieved 5 October 2017. By any measure, no one comes close to matching the success of The Beatles' primary songwriters.
4. ^ "24th Annual GRAMMY Awards | GRAMMY.com". www.grammy.com.

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9 December 1861 – American Civil War: The Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War is established by the U.S. Congress.

United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War

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10 December 1907 – The worst night of the Brown Dog riots in London, when 1,000 medical students clash with 400 police officers over the existence of a memorial for animals that have been vivisected.

Brown Dog affair

British political controversy, 1903–1910

The Brown Dog affair was a political controversy about vivisection that raged in Britain from 1903 until 1910. It involved the infiltration of University of London medical lectures by Swedish feminists, battles between medical students and the police, police protection for the statue of a dog, a libel trial at the Royal Courts of Justice, and the establishment of a Royal Commission to investigate the use of animals in experiments. The affair became a cause célèbre that divided the country.^[1]

The controversy was triggered by allegations that, in February 1903, William Bayliss of the Department of Physiology at University College London performed an illegal vivisection, before an audience of 60 medical students, on a brown terrier dog—adequately anaesthetized, according to Bayliss and his team; conscious and struggling, according to the Swedish activists. The procedure was condemned as cruel and unlawful by the National Anti-Vivisection Society. Outraged by the assault on his reputation, Bayliss, whose research on dogs led to the discovery of hormones, sued for libel and won.^[2]

Anti-vivisectionists commissioned a bronze statue of the dog as a memorial, unveiled on the Latchmere Recreation Ground in Battersea in 1906, but medical students were angered by its provocative plaque—"Men and women of England, how long shall these Things be?"—leading to frequent vandalism of the memorial and the need for a 24-hour police guard against the so-called anti-doggers.^[3] On 10 December 1907, hundreds of medical students marched through central London waving effigies of the brown dog on sticks, clashing with suffragettes, trade unionists and 300 police officers, one of a series of battles known as the Brown Dog riots.^[4]

In March 1910, tired of the controversy, Battersea Council sent four workers accompanied by 120 police officers to remove the statue under cover of darkness, after which it was reportedly melted down by the council's blacksmith, despite a 20,000-strong petition in its favour.^[5] A new statue of the brown dog, commissioned by anti-vivisection groups, was erected in Battersea Park in 1985.^[6]

On 6 September 2021, the 115th anniversary of when the original statue was unveiled, a new campaign was launched by author Paula S. Owen to recast the original statue.^[7]

1. ^ Baron 1956; Linzey & Linzey 2017, 25.
2. ^ Lansbury 1985, 10–12, 126–127.
3. ^ Ford 2013, 6, 9ff; Lansbury 1985, 14.
4. ^ Mason 1997, 51–56; Lansbury 1985, 14.
5. ^ Kean 2003, 357, citing the Daily Graphic, 11 March 1910.
6. ^ Kean 1998, 153.
7. ^ "How the cruel death of a little stray dog led to riots in 1900s Britain". the Guardian. 12 September 2021. Retrieved 1 November 2021.

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11 December 630 – Muhammad leads an army of 10,000 to conquer Mecca.

Conquest of Mecca

Military campaign of the Muslim–Quraysh War

The conquest of Mecca (Arabic: فَتْحُ مَكَّةَ Fatḥu Makkah, alternatively, "liberation of Mecca") was a military campaign undertaken by Muhammad and his companions during the Muslim–Quraysh War. They led the early Muslims in an advance on the Quraysh-controlled city of Mecca in December 629 or January 630^[3][4] (10–20 Ramadan, 8 AH).^[3] The fall of the city to Muhammad formally marked the end of the conflict between his followers and the Quraysh tribal confederation.

1. ^ Akram, Agha Ibrahim (10 August 2007). Khalid Bin Al-Walid: Sword of Allah: A Biographical Study of One of the Greatest Military Generals in History. Maktabah Publications. p. 57. ISBN 978-0954866525.
2. ^ Akram 2007, p. 61.
3. ^ ^{a b} F.R. Shaikh, Chronology of Prophetic Events, Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd., London, 2001 pp. 3, 72, 134–136. Shaikh places the departure on Wednesday, 29 November. This is apparently calculated using the tabular Islamic calendar and then substituting Ramadan for Sha'ban in an (ineffective) attempt to allow for intercalation.
4. ^ Gabriel, Richard A. (2014), Muhammad: Islam's First Great General, University of Oklahoma Press, pp. 167, 176, ISBN 9780806182506

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