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9 August 1965 Singapore is expelled from Malaysia and becomes the only country to date to gain independence unwillingly.

History of the Republic of Singapore

For the full history of Singapore before independence dating back to settlement, see History of Singapore.

History of modern Singapore

The history of the Republic of Singapore began when Singapore was expelled from Malaysia and became an independent republic on 9 August 1965.^[1] After the separation, the fledgling nation had to become self-sufficient, however was faced with problems including mass unemployment, housing shortages and lack of land and natural resources such as petroleum. During Lee Kuan Yew's term as prime minister from 1959 to 1990, his government curbed unemployment, raised the standard of living and implemented a large-scale public housing programme. The country's economic infrastructure was developed, racial tension was eliminated and an independent national defence system was established. Singapore evolved from a third world nation to first world nation towards the end of the 20th century.^[2]

In 1990, Goh Chok Tong succeeded Lee as prime minister. During his tenure, the country tackled the economic impacts of the 1997 Asian financial crisis and the 2003 SARS outbreak, as well as terrorist threats posed by the Jemaah Islamiah (JI) post-9/11 and the Bali bombings. In 2004, Lee Hsien Loong, the eldest son of Lee Kuan Yew, became the third prime minister.^[3]

1. ^ "Road to Independence". U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved 14 April 2006.
2. ^ "Country Groups". The World Bank. Retrieved 2 May 2006.
3. ^ "Country profile: Singapore". BBC News. 15 July 2009. Retrieved 14 April 2006.

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10 August 1990 The Magellan space probe reaches Venus.

Magellan (spacecraft)

NASA mission to map the surface of Venus via robotic probe (launched 1989)

The Magellan spacecraft was a 1,035-kilogram (2,282 lb) robotic space probe launched by NASA of the United States, on May 4, 1989, to map the surface of Venus by using synthetic-aperture radar and to measure the planetary gravitational field.

The Magellan probe was the first interplanetary mission to be launched from the Space Shuttle, the first one to use the Inertial Upper Stage booster, and the first spacecraft to test aerobraking as a method for circularizing its orbit. Magellan was the fifth successful NASA mission to Venus, and it ended an eleven-year gap in U.S. interplanetary probe launches.

1. ^ "Magellan". NASA's Solar System Exploration website. Retrieved November 30, 2022.

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11 August 1984 We begin bombing in five minutes: United States President Ronald Reagan, while running for re-election, jokes while preparing to make his weekly Saturday address on National Public Radio.

We begin bombing in five minutes

Joke made by U.S. President Ronald Reagan during the Cold War

We begin bombing in five minutes

The audio leaked to the public

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"We begin bombing in five minutes" is the last sentence of a controversial, off-the-record joke made by U.S. President Ronald Reagan in 1984, during the Cold War. While preparing for a scheduled radio address from his vacation home in California, Reagan joked with those present about outlawing and bombing Russia. The joke was not broadcast live, but was recorded and later leaked to the public. The Soviet Union criticized the joke, as did Reagan's opponent in the 1984 United States presidential election, Walter Mondale.

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12 August 1976 Between 1,000 and 3,500 Palestinians are killed in the Tel al-Zaatar massacre, one of the bloodiest events of the Lebanese Civil War.

Tel al-Zaatar massacre

1976 Christian militia attack on Palestinian refugee camp in Beirut

The Tel al-Zaatar massacre was an attack on Tel al-Zaatar (meaning Hill of Thyme in Arabic), a UNRWA-administered refugee camp housing Palestinian refugees in northeastern Beirut, that ended on August 12, 1976 with the massacre of 1,500^[2][3][4] to 3,000 people.^[5] The siege began in January of 1976 with an attack by Christian Lebanese militias led by the Lebanese Front as part of a wider campaign to expel Palestinians, especially those affiliated with the opposing Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) from northern Beirut.^[6] After five months, the siege turned into a full-scale military assault in June and ended with the massacre in August 1976. ^[7]

1. ^ Price, Daniel E. (1999). Islamic Political Culture, Democracy, and Human Rights: A Comparative Study. Greenwood Publishing Company, ISBN 978-0275961879, p. 68.
2. ^ Lisa Suhair Majaj, Paula W. Sunderman, and Therese Saliba Intersections Syracuse University Press ISBN 0815629516 p. 156
3. ^ Samir Khalaf, Philip Shukry Khoury (1993) Recovering Beirut: Urban Design and Post-war Reconstruction, Brill, ISBN 9004099115 p. 253
4. ^ Younis, Mona (2000) Liberation and Democratization: The South African and Palestinian National Movements University of Minnesota Press, ISBN 0816633002 p. 221
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference :65 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ United States Army Human Engineering Laboratory (June 1979). Military Operations in selected Lebanese built-up areas, 1975–1978 (PDF). Technical Memorandum 11–79 (Report). Archived (PDF) from the original on February 1, 2014.
7. ^ Khoury, Elias (2012). "Rethinking The Nakba". Critical Inquiry. 38 (2): 250–266. doi:10.1086/662741. S2CID 162316338.

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13 August 1937 The Battle of Shanghai begins.

Battle of Shanghai

1937 battle of the Second Sino-Japanese War

This article is about the 1937 battle. For the 1932 Japanese attack on Shanghai, see January 28 incident. For other uses, see Battle of Shanghai (disambiguation).

The Battle of Shanghai (Chinese: 淞滬會戰) was the first of the twenty-two major engagements fought between the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) of the Republic of China (ROC) and the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) of the Empire of Japan at the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War. It lasted from August 13, 1937, to November 26, 1937, and was arguably the single largest and longest battle of the entire war,^[10] with it even regarded by some historians as the first battle of World War II.^[11] The Japanese eventually prevailed after over three months of extensive fighting on land, in the air and at sea. Both sides accused each other of using chemical weapons during the battle, both without evidence.^[12] Historian Peter Harmsen stated that the battle "presaged urban combat as it was to be waged not just during the Second World War, but throughout the remainder of the twentieth century" and that it "signalled the totality of modern urban warfare".^[13] It has also been called "one of the most incredible defensive battles ever waged on this planet".^[14] It is considered to be the single largest urban battle prior to the Battle of Stalingrad.^[15]

Since the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931 followed by the Japanese attack of Shanghai in 1932, there had been ongoing armed conflicts between China and Japan without an official declaration of war. These conflicts finally escalated in July 1937, when the Marco Polo Bridge Incident triggered the full advance from Japan.^[16] Shanghai was China's largest and most cosmopolitan city, with it being the world's fifth largest city at the time.^[17][13] Shanghai was known as the "Pearl of the Orient" and "Paris of the East", with it being China's main commercial hub and largest port.^[18][19] Dogged Chinese resistance at Shanghai was aimed at stalling the Japanese advance, giving much needed time for the Chinese government to move vital industries to the interior, while at the same time attempting to bring sympathetic Western powers to China's side. During the fierce three-month battle, the forces of China and Japan fought in downtown Shanghai, in the outlying towns, and on the beaches of the Yangtze River and Hangzhou Bay, where the Japanese had made amphibious landings.

Chinese forces were equipped primarily with small-caliber weapons against much greater Japanese air, naval, and armor power.^[20] In the end, Shanghai fell, and China lost a significant portion of its best troops, the elite Chinese forces trained and equipped by the Germans,^[21] while failing to elicit any international intervention. However, the resistance of Chinese forces over three months of battle shocked the Japanese,^[22] who had been indoctrinated with notions of cultural and martial superiority, and largely demoralized the Imperial Japanese Army, who believed they could take Shanghai within days and China within months.

The battle can be divided into three stages, and eventually involved around one million troops. The first stage lasted from August 13 to August 22, 1937, during which the NRA attempted to eradicate Japanese troop presence in downtown Shanghai in bloody urban fighting.^[23] The second stage lasted from August 23 to October 26, 1937, during which the Japanese launched amphibious landings on the Jiangsu coast and the two armies fought a house-to-house battle,^[24][25] with the Japanese attempting to gain control of the city and the surrounding regions. The last stage, ranging from October 27 to the end of November 1937, involved the retreat of the Chinese army in the face of Japanese flanking maneuvers, and the ensuing combat on the road to China's capital, Nanjing. In addition to the urban combat, trench warfare was also fought in the outskirts of the city.^[26][13]

1. ^ Wilson, Dick (1982). When Tigers Fight: The Story of the Sino-Japanese War, 1937-1945. Viking Books. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-670-76003-9.
2. ^ Wilson, Dick (1982). When Tigers Fight: The Story of the Sino-Japanese War, 1937-1945. Viking Books. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-670-76003-9.
3. ^ Harmsen, Peter (2013). Shanghai 1937: Stalingrad on the Yangtze. Casemate. p. 247.
4. ^ Lai 2017, p. 87.
5. ^ Harmsen, Peter (2013). Shanghai 1937: Stalingrad on the Yangtze. Casemate. p. 247.
6. ^ ^{a b c} Lai 2017, p. 88.
7. ^ 南京戦史 (in Japanese). Asagumo Shimbunsha. 1966. pp. 306–307.
8. ^ 戦史叢書 [Senshi Sōsho] (in Japanese). Vol. 2. Asagumo Shimbunsha. 1966.
9. ^ Dai, Feng; Zhou, Ming (2013). 《淞滬會戰：1937年中日813戰役始末》 (in Traditional Chinese). Taipei City: Zhibingtang Publishing. p. 194. ISBN 9789868950924.
10. ^ Wakeman, Jr., Frederic (1996). The Shanghai Badlands: Wartime Terrorism and Urban Crime, 1937–1941 (1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 6. ISBN 0-521-49744-2.
11. ^ Sun, Lianggang. "Shanghai 1937 – Where World War II Began". Shanghai, August 13, 1937: Where World War II Started. Retrieved 2020-11-14. When did World War II begin? Americans might say December 7, 1941 ... The day the Japanese Imperial Navy attacked the American naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. For Europeans, it was September 1, 1939 ... When Nazi Germany invaded Poland. But in China, people will tell you a different date. August 13, 1937.
12. ^ Harmsen, Peter (2013). Shanghai 1937: Stalingrad on the Yangtze (1st ed.). Casemate. pp. 178–179. ISBN 978-1612001678.
13. ^ ^{a b c} Harmsen, Peter (2020), Fremont-Barnes, Gregory (ed.), "Armageddon Rehearsed: The Battle of Shanghai, August–November 1937", A History of Modern Urban Operations, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 33–54, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-27088-9_2, ISBN 978-3-030-27088-9, retrieved 2024-02-24
14. ^ Whitney, Matthew D. (2000). A Military Analysis of the Battle of Shanghai, 13 August - 8 November 1937 (Master's thesis). Cornell University. Retrieved 23 February 2024.
15. ^ Rigg, Bryan Mark (2024). Japan's Holocaust: History of Imperial Japan's Mass Murder and Rape During World War II. Knox Press. p. 71. ISBN 9781637586884.
16. ^ "Articles published during wartime by former Domei News Agency released online in free-to-access archive". The Japan Times. 2018-11-02. ISSN 0447-5763. Archived from the original on 2019-06-04. Retrieved 2019-06-04.
17. ^ Davidson, Jason. "The story of the Royal Ulster Riflemen and the battle of Shanghai". Sky HISTORY TV channel. Retrieved 2024-02-24.
18. ^ Lai 2017, p. 7.
19. ^ Peck, Michael (2020-07-30). "Asia's Stalingrad: World War II's Battle For Shanghai Was A Hell Like No Other". The National Interest. Retrieved 2024-02-21.
20. ^ Hsiung, James (1992). China's Bitter Victory. Armonk: M.E. Sharpe. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-87332-708-4.
21. ^ Macgregor, Douglas (2016). Margin of Victory: Five Battles that Changed the Face of Modern War. Naval Institute Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-1612519968.
22. ^ Liu, Frederick Fu (1956). A Military History of Modern China, 1924-1949. Princeton University Press. p. 199.
23. ^ Paulose, James (2013). "Three Months Of Bloodshed: Strategy And Combat During The Battle Of Shanghai". Report: West Point Undergraduate Historical Review. 3 (2).
24. ^ "Battle of Shanghai 1937". Pacific Atrocities Education. Retrieved 2022-12-30.
25. ^ Peck, Michael (2016-05-30). "Shanghai 1937: This Is China's Forgotten Stalingrad". The National Interest. Retrieved 2022-12-30.
26. ^ Harmsen, Peter (2013). Shanghai 1937: Stalingrad on the Yangtze (1st ed.). Casemate. p. 136. ISBN 978-1612001678.

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14 August 1962 Two gunmen hijacked a mail truck in Plymouth, Massachusetts, and made off with $1.5 million.

Plymouth Mail robbery

1962 cash heist in Massachusetts

The Plymouth Mail robbery, or what the press dubbed "The Great Plymouth Mail Truck Robbery" was, at the time of its occurrence, the largest cash heist of all time. On August 14, 1962, two gunmen stopped a U.S. Mail truck that was delivering $1.5 million in small bills from Cape Cod to the Federal Reserve Bank in Boston, Massachusetts. The hijacking occurred on Route 3 in Plymouth, Massachusetts. The two robbers, dressed as police officers and brandishing submachine guns, tied up the driver of the truck and the guard and drove the truck themselves to places unknown, where the money was dropped off in several places. The truck and its two tied-up occupants were abandoned in Randolph, Massachusetts, alongside Route 128.^[1][2]

For five years the United States Postal Inspection Service as well as the FBI intensively combed New England for leads in the robbery, but were frustrated at the lack of evidence. Authorities even at one time offered a $150,000 or 10% of the amount recovered (Federal Reserve Bank of Boston) cash reward in addition to the $50,000 Postmaster General reward for information leading to the conviction of those responsible for the caper, even going so far as to deem any suspect killed in his apprehension to be deemed "convicted" for purposes of the reward.^[3] The combination of media, law enforcement, and popular interest in this record-breaking robbery combined for an atmosphere of near-hysteria in the Boston area throughout the early and middle 1960s. Not a few completely uninvolved people were accused of being involved in the heist, with the media loudly proclaiming their guilt even with no evidence or facts to support its claims.^[4]

With the five-year federal statute of limitations approaching with no real leads to solve the robbery, the Postal Inspectorate and the Department of Justice stepped up a campaign of near-total surveillance and harassment of all known armed robbers in the Boston area in a frantic effort to obtain clues about the robber's identities. Shortly before the statute of limitations was to expire, a federal grand jury indicted four men and one woman as the perpetrators of this robbery.^[5] One of the defendants disappeared right before trial and was never found.^[6] The other defendants were acquitted at trial.

To this day the haul of $1.5 million in cash (equivalent to approximately $15,100,000 in 2013 dollars^[7]) remains undiscovered by the authorities.

Vincent "Fat Vinnie" Teresa, a Boston mobster who served as a lieutenant of Raymond L.S. Patriarca, claimed in his book My Life in the Mafia that John "Red" Kelley was the man who planned the robbery. He allegedly received a generous 80 cents on the dollar when the money was laundered.

1. ^ U.S.Mail Truck Robbed By Gang Fitchburg Sentinel August 15, 1962
2. ^ Mail Truck Looted of $1.5 Million Desert Sun August 15, 1962
3. ^ F. Lee Bailey, The Defense Never Rests, co-author with Harvey Aronson. Stein & Day, 1971. ISBN 0-8128-1441-X, p. 105
4. ^ "Fastcase – Beyond Research".
5. ^ Federal Prosecutors Indict 3 In 5-Year-Old Mail Robbery Columbia Missourian August 1, 1967 [1]
6. ^ F. Lee Bailey, The Defense Never Rests, co-author with Harvey Aronson. Stein & Day, 1971. ISBN 0-8128-1441-X, p. 118.
7. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved February 29, 2024.

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15 August 1939 The Wizard of Oz premieres at Grauman's Chinese Theater in Los Angeles, California.

The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)

Redirect to:

• The Wizard of Oz

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16 August 1916 The Migratory Bird Treaty between Canada and the United States signed.

Migratory Bird Treaty

1916 treaty between Canada and the United States

The Migratory Bird Treaty or Convention is an environmental treaty between Canada and the United States. It was originally signed on 16 August 1916 by the United States and the United Kingdom, (representing Canada), entered into force on 6 December 1916 and has since been amended several times.

Whereas, many species of birds in the course of their annual migrations traverse certain parts of the Dominion of Canada and the United States; and

Whereas, many of these species are of great value as a source of food or in destroying insects which are injurious to forests and forage plants on the public domain, as well as to agricultural crops, in both Canada and the United States, but are nevertheless in danger of extermination through lack of adequate protection during the nesting season or while on their way to and from their breeding grounds;

His Majesty the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British dominions beyond the seas, Emperor of India, and the United States of America, being desirous of saving from indiscriminate slaughter and of insuring the preservation of such migratory birds as are either useful to man or are harmless, have resolved to adopt some uniform system of protection which shall effectively accomplish such objects ...^[1]

1. ^ "Canada Treaty Information - View Treaty". Archived from the original on 2011-10-03. Retrieved 2011-05-18.

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17 August 1950 Hill 303 massacre: American POWs are shot to death by the North Korean Army.

Hill 303 massacre

1950 North Korean War Crime Massacre

The Hill 303 massacre (Korean: 303 고지 학살 사건) was a war crime that took place during the opening days of the Korean War on August 17, 1950, on a hill above Waegwan, Republic of Korea. Forty-one United States Army (US) prisoners of war were murdered by troops of the North Korean People's Army (KPA) during one of the engagements of the Battle of Pusan Perimeter.

Operating near Taegu during the Battle of Taegu, elements of the US 2nd Battalion, 5th Cavalry Regiment, 1st Cavalry Division, were surrounded by KPA troops crossing the Nakdong River at Hill 303. Most of the US troops were able to escape, but one platoon of mortar operators misidentified KPA troops as Republic of Korea Army (ROK) reinforcements and was captured. KPA troops held the Americans on the hill and initially tried to move them across the river and out of the battle, but they were unable to do so because of a heavy counterattack. US forces eventually broke the KPA advance, routing the force. As the KPA began to retreat, one of their officers ordered the prisoners to be shot so they would not slow them down.

The massacre provoked a response from both sides in the conflict. US commanders broadcast radio messages and dropped leaflets demanding the senior North Korean commanders be held responsible for the atrocity. The KPA commanders, concerned about the way their soldiers were treating prisoners of war, laid out stricter guidelines for handling enemy captives. Memorials were later constructed on Hill 303 by troops at nearby Camp Carroll to honor the victims of the massacre.

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18 August 1966 Vietnam War: The Battle of Long Tan ensues after a patrol from the 6th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment clashes with a Viet Cong force in Phước Tuy Province.

Battle of Long Tan

1966 battle of the Vietnam War

The Battle of Long Tan (18 August 1966) took place in a rubber plantation near Long Tân, in Phước Tuy Province, South Vietnam, during the Vietnam War. The action was fought between Viet Cong (VC) and People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) units and elements of the 1st Australian Task Force (1 ATF).

Australian signals intelligence (SIGINT) had tracked the VC 275th Regiment and D445 Battalion moving to a position just north of Long Tan. By 16 August, it was positioned near Long Tan outside the range of the 1 ATF artillery at Nui Dat. Using mortars and recoilless rifles (RCLs), on the night of 16/17 August, the VC attacked Nui Dat from a position 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) to the east, until counter-battery fire made it stop. The next morning D Company, 6th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (6 RAR), departed Nui Dat to locate the firing positions and determine the direction of the VC withdrawal. D Company found weapon pits and firing positions for mortars and RCLs, and around midday on 18 August made contact with VC elements.

Facing a larger force, D Company called in artillery support. Heavy fighting ensued as the VC attempted to encircle and destroy the Australians, who were resupplied several hours later by two UH-1B Iroquois from No. 9 Squadron RAAF. With the help of strong artillery fire, D Company held off a regimental assault before a relief force of M113 armoured personnel carriers and infantry from Nui Dat reinforced them that night. Australian forces then pulled back to evacuate their casualties and formed a defensive position; when they swept through the area next day, the VC had withdrawn and the operation ended on 21 August.

Although 1 ATF initially viewed Long Tan as a defeat, the action was later re-assessed as a strategic victory since it prevented the VC moving against Nui Dat. The VC also considered it a victory, due to the political success of an effective ambush and securing of the area around the village. Whether the battle impaired the capabilities of the VC is disputed.

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19 August 1934 The first All-American Soap Box Derby is held in Dayton, Ohio.

Soap Box Derby

Youth racing competition

The Soap Box Derby is a youth-oriented soap box car racing program which has been running in the United States since 1934. Proclaimed "the greatest amateur racing event in the world", the program culminates each July at the FirstEnergy All-American Soap Box Derby World Championship held at Derby Downs in Akron, Ohio, with winners from their local communities travelling from across the US, Canada, Germany and Japan to compete. 2024 will mark the 86th running of the All-American since its inception in 1934 in Dayton, Ohio, having missed four years (1942–1945) during World War II and one (2020) during the COVID pandemic. Cars competing in the program race downhill, propelled by gravity alone.

The Soap Box Derby expanded quickly across the US from the very beginning, bolstered largely by a generous financial campaign by its national sponsor, Chevrolet Motor Company. At the same time there was enthusiastic support from coast to coast of numerous local newspapers that published aggressively during the summer months when races were held, with stories boasting of their own community races and of their Champion travelling to Akron with dreams of capturing a National title and hometown glory. In 1936 the All-American had its own purpose-built track constructed at what is now Derby Downs, with some communities across America following suit with tracks of their own.

Its greatest years occurred during the fifties and sixties when viewer turnout at the All-American reached 100,000 spectators, and racer participation was at an all-time high. From the very beginning, technical and car-design innovation happened rapidly, so Derby officials drafted ways of governing the sport so that it did not become too hazardous as speed records were being challenged. At Derby Downs the track length was shortened twice to slow the cars down.

The seventies brought significant changes, beginning with the introduction of girls to the sport in 1971. The following year Chevrolet dropped its sponsorship, sending Derby Downs into a tailspin that threatened its very future. Racer enrollment plummeted the following year. In 1973 a scandal hit Derby Downs with the discovery that their World Champion had cheated, and was thus disqualified, further exacerbating an uncertain future. In 1975 Karren Stead won the World Championship, the first of many girls that would go on to claim the title. Finally there was Derby's decision to divide the competition with the introduction of the Junior Division kit cars in 1976.

As fiscal challenges continued, the Derby instituted new guidelines by redrafting the Official race divisions into three: Stock, Super Stock and Masters. With them came the prefabricated fiber glass kit racers which kids could now purchase, this to appeal to a new generation of racers uncomfortable with constructing their own cars from scratch, as well as to help Derby effectively meet its financial obligations. Leading into the 21st century the Soap Box Derby has continued to expand with the inclusion of the Rally Program racers at the All-American in 1993, the creation of the Ultimate Speed Challenge in 2004 and the Legacy Division in 2019.

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i} "Staff". "Soap Box Derby".
2. ^ ^{a b c} "Board of Directors". "Soap Box Derby".
3. ^ "ISBD 2022 Annual Report". "HeyZine Flipbooks".

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20 August 1882 Tchaikovsky's 1812 Overture debuts in Moscow, Russia.

1812 Overture

1880 concert overture by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky

"The Year 1812" redirects here. For the leap year, see 1812.

The Year 1812, Solemn Overture, Op. 49, popularly known as the 1812 Overture,^[1] is a concert overture in E♭ major written in 1880 by Russian composer Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky. The piece commemorates Russia's successful defense against the French invasion of the country by Napoleon in 1812.

The overture debuted in Moscow on 20 August [O.S. 8 August] 1882,^[2] conducted by Ippolit Al'tani under a tent near the then-almost-finished Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, which also memorialised the 1812 defense of Russia.^[3]

The fifteen-minute overture is best known for its climactic volley of cannon fire, ringing chimes, and a brass fanfare finale. It has also become a common accompaniment to fireworks displays on the United States' Independence Day.^[4] The 1812 Overture went on to become one of Tchaikovsky's most popular works, along with his ballet scores to The Nutcracker, The Sleeping Beauty, and Swan Lake.^[5]

1. ^ "Tchaikovsky Research: The Year 1812, Op. 49 (TH 49)". Retrieved 21 June 2015.
2. ^ Lax, Roger; Smith, Frederick (1989). The Great Song Thesaurus. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 230. ISBN 978-0-19-505408-8.
3. ^ Felsenfeld, Daniel. Tchaikovsky: A Listener's Guide, p. 54. Amadeus Press, 2006.
4. ^ Hernández, Javier C. (3 July 2022). "Amid Ukraine War, Orchestras Rethink '1812 Overture,' a July 4 Rite – Some ensembles have decided not to perform Tchaikovsky's overture, written as commemoration of Russia's defeat of Napoleon's army". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 July 2022.
5. ^ Robinson, Harlow (2012). Rzhevsky, Nicholas (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Modern Russian Culture. Cambridge University Press. p. 268. ISBN 978-1-107-00252-4.

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21 August 1979 Soviet dancer Alexander Godunov defects to the United States.

Alexander Godunov

Russian-American ballet dancer and film actor (1949–1995)

Alexander Borisovich Godunov (Russian: Александр Борисович Годунов; November 28, 1949 – c. May 1995)^[4] was a Russian-American ballet dancer and film actor. A member of the Bolshoi Ballet, he became the troupe's Premier danseur. In 1979, he defected to the United States. While continuing to dance, he also began working as a supporting actor in Hollywood films. He had prominent roles in films such as Witness (1985) and Die Hard (1988).

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference levitt was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "Godunov, Alexander 1949-1995". WorldCat.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Indep Obit was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Debra Craine, Judith Mackrell (August 19, 2010). "Godunov, Alexander". The Oxford Dictionary of Dance. Oxford University Press. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-19-956344-9.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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22 August 1485 The Battle of Bosworth Field, the death of Richard III and the end of the House of Plantagenet.

Battle of Bosworth Field

Decisive battle of the Wars of the Roses

The Battle of Bosworth or Bosworth Field (/ˈbɒzwərθ/ BOZ-wərth) was the last significant battle of the Wars of the Roses, the civil war between the houses of Lancaster and York that extended across England in the latter half of the 15th century. Fought on 22 August 1485, the battle was won by an alliance of Lancastrians and disaffected Yorkists. Their leader Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, became the first English monarch of the Tudor dynasty by his victory and subsequent marriage to a Yorkist princess. His opponent Richard III, the last king of the House of York, was killed during the battle, the last English monarch to die in combat. Historians consider Bosworth Field to mark the end of the Plantagenet dynasty, making it one of the defining moments of English history.

Richard's reign began in 1483 when he ascended the throne after his twelve-year-old nephew, Edward V, was declared illegitimate. The boy and his younger brother Richard soon disappeared, and their fate is a mystery still today. Across the English Channel Henry Tudor, a descendant of the greatly diminished House of Lancaster, seized on Richard's difficulties and laid claim to the throne. Henry's first attempt to invade England in 1483 foundered in a storm, but his second arrived unopposed on 7 August 1485 on the southwest coast of Wales. Marching inland, Henry gathered support as he made for London. Richard hurriedly mustered his troops and intercepted Henry's army near Ambion Hill, south of the town of Market Bosworth in Leicestershire. Lord Stanley and Sir William Stanley also brought a force to the battlefield, but held back while they decided which side it would be most advantageous to support, initially lending only four knights to Henry's cause; these were: Sir Robert Tunstall, Sir John Savage (nephew of Lord Stanley), Sir Hugh Persall and Sir Humphrey Stanley.^[3] Sir John Savage was placed in command of the left flank of Henry's army.

Richard divided his army, which outnumbered Henry's, into three groups (or "battles"). One was assigned to the Duke of Norfolk and another to the Earl of Northumberland. Henry kept most of his force together and placed it under the command of the experienced Earl of Oxford. Richard's vanguard, commanded by Norfolk, attacked but struggled against Oxford's men, and some of Norfolk's troops fled the field. Northumberland took no action when signalled to assist his king, so Richard gambled everything on a charge across the battlefield to kill Henry and end the fight. Seeing the king's knights separated from his army, the Stanleys intervened; Sir William led his men to Henry's aid, surrounding and killing Richard. After the battle, Henry was crowned king.

Henry hired chroniclers to portray his reign favourably; the Battle of Bosworth Field was popularised to represent his Tudor dynasty as the start of a new age, marking the end of the Middle Ages for England. From the 15th to the 18th centuries the battle was glamourised as a victory of good over evil, and features as the climax of William Shakespeare's play Richard III. The exact site of the battle is disputed because of the lack of conclusive data, and memorials have been erected at different locations. The Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre was built in 1974, on a site that has since been challenged by several scholars and historians. In October 2009, a team of researchers who had performed geological surveys and archaeological digs in the area since 2003 suggested a location two miles (3.2 km) southwest of Ambion Hill.

1. ^ Chrimes 1999, p. 49.
2. ^ Vergil, Polydore. "Anglica Historia (1555 version)". The Philological Museum of the University of Birmingham. Retrieved 29 August 2016.
3. ^ The Ballad of Bosworth Fielde, Text from Bishop Percy's Folio Manuscript. Ballads and Romances, ed. J.W. Hales and F.J. Furnivall, 3 vols. (London, 1868), III, pp. 233–259. Reproduced by kind permission of Department of Special Collections, University of Pennsylvania Library

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23 August 1328 Battle of Cassel: French troops stop an uprising of Flemish farmers.

Battle of Cassel (1328)

Part of the Flemish Coast Uprising

For other battles, see Battle of Cassel (disambiguation).

On 23 August 1328, the Battle of Cassel took place near the city of Cassel, 30 km south of Dunkirk in present-day France. Philip VI (King of France from 1328 to 1350) fought Nicolaas Zannekin, a wealthy farmer from Lampernisse. Zannekin was the leader of a band of Flemish rebels. The fighting erupted over taxation and punitive edicts of the French over the Flemish. The battle was won decisively by the French. Zannekin and about 3,200 Flemish rebels were killed in the battle.

1. ^ Jan Frans Verbruggen (2002). The Battle of the Golden Spurs: (Courtrai, 11 July 1302) ; a Contribution to the History on Flanders' War of Liberation, 1297–1305. Boydell & Brewer. p. 269. ISBN 978-0-85115-888-4. Retrieved 15 May 2013.

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24 August 1954 The Communist Control Act goes into effect, outlawing the American Communist Party.

Communist Control Act of 1954

1954 U.S. law criminalizing membership in communist organizations and supporting them

The Communist Control Act of 1954 (68 Stat. 775, 50 U.S.C. §§ 841–844) is an American law signed by President Dwight Eisenhower on August 24, 1954, that outlaws the Communist Party of the United States and criminalizes membership in or support for the party or "Communist-action" organizations and defines evidence to be considered by a jury in determining participation in the activities, planning, actions, objectives, or purposes of such organizations.^[1]

1. ^ Peters, Gerhard; Woolley, John T. "Dwight D. Eisenhower: "Statement by the President Upon Signing the Communist Control Act of 1954.," August 24, 1954". The American Presidency Project. University of California – Santa Barbara. Archived from the original on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 26 January 2014.

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25 August 1830 The Belgian Revolution begins.

Belgian Revolution

1830 revolution in Belgium against Dutch rule

For the Belgian Revolution of 1789–90, see Brabant Revolution.

The Belgian Revolution (French: Révolution belge, Dutch: Belgische Revolutie/opstand/omwenteling) was the conflict which led to the secession of the southern provinces (mainly the former Southern Netherlands) from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and the establishment of an independent Kingdom of Belgium.

The people of the south were mainly Flemings and Walloons. Both peoples were traditionally Roman Catholic as contrasted with Protestant-dominated (Dutch Reformed) people of the north. Many outspoken liberals regarded King William I's rule as despotic. There were high levels of unemployment and industrial unrest among the working classes.^[3]

On 25 August 1830, riots erupted in Brussels and shops were looted. Theatregoers who had just watched the nationalistic opera La muette de Portici joined the mob. Uprisings followed elsewhere in the country. Factories were occupied and machinery destroyed. Order was restored briefly after William committed troops to the Southern Provinces but rioting continued and leadership was taken up by radicals, who started talking of secession.^[4]

Dutch units saw the mass desertion of recruits from the southern provinces and pulled out. The States-General in Brussels voted in favour of secession and declared independence. In the aftermath, a National Congress was assembled. King William refrained from future military action and appealed to the Great Powers. The resulting 1830 London Conference of major European powers recognized Belgian independence. Following the installation of Leopold I as "King of the Belgians" in 1831, King William made a belated attempt to reconquer Belgium and restore his position through a military campaign. This "Ten Days' Campaign" failed because of French military intervention. The Dutch accepted the decision of the London conference and Belgian independence in 1839 by signing the Treaty of London.

1. ^ ^{a b} A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East, by Spencer C. Tucker, 2009, p. 1156
2. ^ "1830–1831 The Belgian Revolution". Timeline Dutch History. Rijksmuseum. Retrieved 3 August 2016.
3. ^ E.H. Kossmann, The Low Countries 1780–1940 (1978) pp. 151–54
4. ^ Paul W. Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848 (1994) pp. 671–91

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26 August 1883 The 1883 eruption of Krakatoa begins its final, paroxysmal, stage.

1883 eruption of Krakatoa

Catastrophic volcanic eruption

The 1883 eruption of Krakatoa (Indonesian: Letusan Krakatau 1883) in the Sunda Strait occurred from 20 May until 21 October 1883, peaking in the late morning hours of 27 August when over 70% of the island of Krakatoa and its surrounding archipelago were destroyed as it collapsed into a caldera.

The eruption was one of the deadliest and most destructive volcanic events in recorded history. The explosion was heard 3,110 kilometres (1,930 mi) away in Perth, Western Australia, and Rodrigues near Mauritius, 4,800 kilometres (3,000 mi) away.^[3] The acoustic pressure wave circled the globe more than three times.^[4]: 63 At least 36,417 deaths are attributed to the eruption and the tsunamis it created.

Significant additional effects were felt worldwide in the days and weeks after the volcano's eruption. Additional seismic activity was reported until February 1884, but any reports after October 1883 were dismissed by Rogier Verbeek's subsequent investigation into the eruption.

1. ^ ^{a b c} "Krakatau". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 3 May 2021.
2. ^ Self, Stephen (1992). "Krakatau revisited: The course of events and interpretation of the 1883 eruption". GeoJournal. 28 (2). Springer Science+Business Media. doi:10.1007/BF00177223. S2CID 189890473. Retrieved 20 May 2022.
3. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Krakatoa" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 923.
4. ^ Symons, G.J. (ed) The Eruption of Krakatoa and Subsequent Phenomena (Report of the Krakatoa Committee of the Royal Society). London, 1888. Internet Archive. 1888.

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27 August 2011 Hurricane Irene strikes the United States east coast, killing 47 and causing an estimated $15.6 billion in damage.

Hurricane Irene

Category 3 Atlantic hurricane in 2011

This article is about the tropical cyclone in 2011. For other storms of the same name, see List of storms named Irene.

Hurricane Irene was a large and destructive tropical cyclone which affected much of the Caribbean and East Coast of the United States during late August 2011. The ninth named storm, first hurricane, and first major hurricane of the 2011 Atlantic hurricane season, Irene originated from a well-defined Atlantic tropical wave that began showing signs of organization east of the Lesser Antilles. Due to development of atmospheric convection and a closed center of circulation, the system was designated as Tropical Storm Irene on August 20, 2011. After intensifying, Irene made landfall in St. Croix as a strong tropical storm later that day. Early on August 21, the storm made a second landfall in Puerto Rico. While crossing the island, Irene strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane. The storm paralleled offshore of Hispaniola, continuing to slowly intensify in the process. Shortly before making four landfalls in the Bahamas, Irene peaked as a 120 mph (190 km/h) Category 3 hurricane.

Thereafter, the storm slowly leveled off in intensity as it struck the Bahamas and then curved northward after passing east of Grand Bahama. Continuing to weaken, Irene was downgraded to a Category 1 hurricane before making landfall on the Outer Banks of North Carolina on August 27, becoming the first hurricane to make landfall in the United States since Hurricane Ike in 2008. Later that day, the storm re-emerged into the Atlantic from southeastern Virginia. Although Irene remained a hurricane over water, it weakened to a tropical storm while making yet another landfall in the Little Egg Inlet in southeastern New Jersey on August 27. A few hours later, Irene made its ninth and final landfall in Brooklyn, New York City. Early on August 29, Irene transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while striking Vermont, after remaining inland as a tropical cyclone for less than 12 hours.

Throughout its path, Irene caused widespread destruction and at least 49 deaths. Damage estimates throughout the United States are estimated near $13.5 billion, making Irene one of the costliest hurricanes on record in the country. In addition, monetary losses in the Caribbean and Canada were $830 million and $130 million respectively for a total of nearly $14.2 billion in damage.^[1][2]

1. ^ Fieser, Erza (August 25, 2011). "Hurricane Irene barrels toward US as Caribbean islands take stock of damage". The Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on August 26, 2011. Retrieved September 20, 2011.
2. ^ Telling the Weather Story (PDF) (Report). Insurance Bureau of Canada. June 4, 2012. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 9, 2015. Retrieved July 19, 2015.

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28 August 1810 Battle of Grand Port: The French accept the surrender of a British Navy fleet.

Battle of Grand Port

1810 naval battle between the French Navy and the British Royal Navy

The Battle of Grand Port was a naval battle fought on 20–27 August 1810 between squadrons of frigates from the French Navy and the British Royal Navy over possession of the harbour of Grand Port on Île de France (now Mauritius), as part of the Mauritius campaign during the Napoleonic Wars. A British squadron of four frigates sought to blockade the port to prevent its use by the French through the capture of the fortified Île de la Passe at its entrance. This position was seized by a British landing party on 13 August and, when a French squadron under Captain Guy-Victor Duperré approached the bay nine days later, the British commander, Captain Samuel Pym, decided to lure them into coastal waters where his forces could ambush them.

Four of the five French ships managed to break past the British blockade, taking shelter in the protected anchorage, which was only accessible through a series of complicated routes between reefs and sandbanks that were impassable without an experienced harbour pilot. When Pym ordered his frigates to attack the anchored French on 22 and 23 August, his ships became trapped in the narrow channels of the bay: two were irretrievably grounded; a third, outnumbered by the combined French squadron, was defeated; and a fourth was unable to close to within effective gun range. Although the French ships were also badly damaged, the battle was a disaster for the British: one ship was captured after suffering irreparable damage, the grounded ships were set on fire to prevent their capture by French boarding parties, and the remaining vessel was seized as it left the harbour by the main French squadron from Port Napoleon under Commodore Jacques Hamelin.

The British defeat is often considered the worst suffered by the Royal Navy during all of the Napoleonic Wars. It left the Indian Ocean and its vital trade convoys exposed to attack from Hamelin's frigates. In response, British authorities sought to reinforce the squadron on Île Bourbon under Commodore Josias Rowley by ordering all available ships to the region, but this piecemeal reinforcement resulted in a series of desperate actions as individual British ships were attacked by the confident and more powerful French squadron. In December an adequate reinforcement was assembled with the provision of a strong battle squadron under Admiral Albemarle Bertie, which rapidly invaded and captured the Île de France.

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29 August 1930 The last 36 remaining inhabitants of St Kilda are voluntarily evacuated to other parts of Scotland.

St Kilda, Scotland

Archipelago in Outer Hebrides, Scotland, United Kingdom

St Kilda (Scottish Gaelic: Hiort) is an isolated archipelago situated 64 kilometres (40 mi) west-northwest of North Uist in the North Atlantic Ocean. It contains the westernmost islands of the Outer Hebrides of Scotland.^{[note 1]} The largest island is Hirta, whose sea cliffs are the highest in the United Kingdom; three other islands (Dùn, Soay and Boreray) were also used for grazing and seabird hunting.^[7] The islands are administratively a part of the Comhairle nan Eilean Siar local authority area.^[8]: 254

The origin of the name St Kilda is a matter of conjecture. The islands' human heritage includes numerous unique architectural features from the historic and prehistoric periods, although the earliest written records of island life date from the Late Middle Ages. The medieval village on Hirta was rebuilt in the 19th century, but illnesses brought by increased external contacts through tourism, and the upheaval of the First World War contributed to the island's evacuation in 1930.^[9] The story of St Kilda has attracted artistic interpretations, including Michael Powell's film The Edge of the World and an opera.^[10]

Permanent habitation on the islands possibly extends back two millennia, the population probably never exceeding 180; its peak was in the late 17th century. The population was 112 in 1851. According to the 1861 census, there were 71 inhabitants at that time; over subsequent years, the population ebbed and waned, eventually dropping to 36 as of May 1930.^[11] Virtually all of the population lived on Hirta. The entire remaining population was evacuated from Hirta, the only inhabited island, in 1930.

The islands house a unique form of stone structure known as cleitean. A cleit is a stone storage hut or bothy; while many still exist, they are slowly falling into disrepair.^[12] There are known to be 1,260 cleitean on Hirta and a further 170 on the other group islands.^[13] Currently, the only year-round residents are military personnel; a variety of conservation workers, volunteers and scientists spend time there in the summer months.^[4][14]

The entire archipelago is owned by the National Trust for Scotland.^[15] It became one of Scotland's six World Heritage Sites in 1986, and is one of the few in the world to hold joint status for both its natural and cultural qualities.^[16] Parties of volunteers work on the islands in the summer to restore the many ruined buildings that the native St Kildans left behind. They share the island with a small military base established in 1957.^[17]

Two different early sheep types have survived on these remote islands, the Soay, a Neolithic type, and the Boreray, an Iron Age type. The islands are a breeding ground for many important seabird species including northern gannets, Atlantic puffins, and northern fulmars. The St Kilda wren and St Kilda field mouse are endemic subspecies.^[4]

1. ^ ^{a b} Maclean (1977) page 33.
2. ^ General Register Office for Scotland (28 November 2003). "Statistics for Inhabited Islands" (PDF). Occasional Paper No 10. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 August 2008. Retrieved 25 July 2007.
3. ^ Grid reference NF095995
4. ^ ^{a b c} Haswell-Smith, Hamish (2004). The Scottish Islands. Edinburgh: Canongate. pp. 314–26. ISBN 978-1-84195-454-7.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference UNEP was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Mac an Tàilleir, Iain (2003) Ainmean-àite/Placenames. (pdf) Pàrlamaid na h-Alba. Retrieved 26 August 2012.
7. ^ Hiltner, Stephen (11 October 2021). "Agony and Ecstasy on the Scottish Archipelago of St. Kilda". The New York Times. Retrieved 21 March 2022.
8. ^ Steel (1988)
9. ^ See especially Maclean (1977), Steel (1988), Fleming (2005).
10. ^ McMillan, Joyce (3 March 2007) "St Kilda the Opera brings out the bully-boys" Archived 2 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Edinburgh. The Scotsman. Retrieved 3 March 2007.
11. ^ "Stories from St Kilda". National Records of Scotland. 31 May 2013. Archived from the original on 8 February 2021. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
12. ^ "Cleit of the Week". Ranger's Diary. St Kilda Today. 13 August 2007. Archived from the original on 12 December 2013. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
13. ^ St Kilda – David Quine (Colin Baxter Island Guides) 1995
14. ^ "The new residents of St Kilda archipelago" Archived 11 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine. (29 August 2010). BBC News. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
15. ^ National Trust for Scotland. Guide. "St Kilda Houses". Archived from the original on 11 March 2013. Retrieved 4 July 2013.
16. ^ "World Heritage: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland" Archived 28 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine. UNESCO. Retrieved 3 January 2007.
17. ^ Steel (1988) page 273.

Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).

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30 August 1967 Thurgood Marshall is confirmed as the first African American Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.

Thurgood Marshall

US Supreme Court justice from 1967 to 1991

For other uses, see Thurgood Marshall (disambiguation).

Thoroughgood "Thurgood" Marshall (July 2, 1908 – January 24, 1993) was an American civil rights lawyer and jurist who served as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1967 until 1991. He was the Supreme Court's first African-American justice. Prior to his judicial service, he was an attorney who fought for civil rights, leading the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund. Marshall was a prominent figure in the movement to end racial segregation in American public schools. He won 29 of the 32 civil rights cases he argued before the Supreme Court, culminating in the Court's landmark 1954 decision in Brown v. Board of Education, which rejected the separate but equal doctrine and held segregation in public education to be unconstitutional. President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed Marshall to the Supreme Court in 1967. A staunch liberal, he frequently dissented as the Court became increasingly conservative.

Born in Baltimore, Maryland, Marshall attended Lincoln University and the Howard University School of Law. At Howard, he was mentored by Charles Hamilton Houston, who taught his students to be "social engineers" willing to use the law to fight for civil rights. Marshall opened a law practice in Baltimore but soon joined Houston at the NAACP in New York. They worked together on the segregation case of Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada; after Houston returned to Washington, Marshall took his place as special counsel of the NAACP, and he became director-counsel of the newly formed NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund. He participated in numerous landmark Supreme Court cases involving civil rights, including Smith v. Allwright, Morgan v. Virginia, Shelley v. Kraemer, McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents, Sweatt v. Painter, Brown, and Cooper v. Aaron. His approach to desegregation cases emphasized the use of sociological data to show that segregation was inherently unequal.

In 1961, President John F. Kennedy appointed Marshall to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, where he favored a broad interpretation of constitutional protections. Four years later, Johnson appointed him as the U.S. Solicitor General. In 1967, Johnson nominated Marshall to replace Justice Tom C. Clark on the Supreme Court; despite opposition from Southern senators, he was confirmed by a vote of 69 to 11. He was often in the majority during the consistently liberal Warren Court period, but after appointments by President Richard Nixon made the Court more conservative, Marshall frequently found himself in dissent. His closest ally on the Court was Justice William J. Brennan Jr., and the two voted the same way in most cases.

Marshall's jurisprudence was pragmatic and drew on his real-world experience. His most influential contribution to constitutional doctrine, the "sliding-scale" approach to the Equal Protection Clause, called on courts to apply a flexible balancing test instead of a more rigid tier-based analysis. He fervently opposed the death penalty, which in his view constituted cruel and unusual punishment; he and Brennan dissented in more than 1,400 cases in which the majority refused to review a death sentence. He favored a robust interpretation of the First Amendment in decisions such as Stanley v. Georgia, and he supported abortion rights in Roe v. Wade and other cases. Marshall retired from the Supreme Court in 1991 and was replaced by Clarence Thomas. He died in 1993.

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31 August 1897 Thomas Edison patents the Kinetoscope, the first movie projector.

Kinetoscope

Motion picture exhibition device

Not to be confused with Kinescope.

The Kinetoscope is an early motion picture exhibition device, designed for films to be viewed by one person at a time through a peephole viewer window. The Kinetoscope was not a movie projector, but it introduced the basic approach that would become the standard for all cinematic projection before the advent of video: it created the illusion of movement by conveying a strip of perforated film bearing sequential images over a light source with a high-speed shutter. First described in conceptual terms by U.S. inventor Thomas Edison in 1888, it was largely developed by his employee William Kennedy Laurie Dickson between 1889 and 1892. Dickson and his team at the Edison lab in New Jersey also devised the Kinetograph, an innovative motion picture camera with rapid intermittent, or stop-and-go, film movement, to photograph movies for in-house experiments and, eventually, commercial Kinetoscope presentations.

A Kinetoscope prototype was first semipublicly demonstrated to members of the National Federation of Women's Clubs invited to the Edison laboratory on May 20, 1891. The completed version was publicly unveiled in Brooklyn two years later, and on April 14, 1894, the first commercial exhibition of motion pictures in history took place in New York City, using ten Kinetoscopes. Instrumental to the birth of American movie culture, the Kinetoscope also had a major impact in Europe; its influence abroad was magnified by Edison's decision not to seek international patents on the device, facilitating numerous imitations of and improvements on the technology. In 1895, Edison introduced the Kinetophone, which joined the Kinetoscope with a cylinder phonograph. Film projection, which Edison initially disdained as financially nonviable, soon superseded the Kinetoscope's individual exhibition model. Numerous motion picture systems developed by Edison's firm in later years were marketed with the name Projecting Kinetoscope.

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1 September 1905 Alberta and Saskatchewan join the Canadian confederation.

Saskatchewan

Province of Canada

This article is about the Canadian province. For other uses, see Saskatchewan (disambiguation).

Province in Canada

Saskatchewan (/səˈskætʃ(ə)wən/ ^ⓘ sə-SKATCH-(ə)-wən; Canadian French: [saskatʃəwan]) is a province in Western Canada, bordered on the west by Alberta, on the north by the Northwest Territories, on the east by Manitoba, to the northeast by Nunavut, and to the south by the United States (Montana and North Dakota). Saskatchewan and Alberta are the only landlocked provinces of Canada. In 2023, Saskatchewan's population was estimated at 1,225,493.^[8] Nearly 10% of Saskatchewan's total area of 651,900 km² (251,700 sq mi) is fresh water, mostly rivers, reservoirs, and lakes.

Residents primarily live in the southern prairie half of the province, while the northern half is mostly forested and sparsely populated. Roughly half live in the province's largest city Saskatoon or the provincial capital Regina. Other notable cities include Prince Albert, Moose Jaw, Yorkton, Swift Current, North Battleford, Estevan, Weyburn, Melfort, and the border city Lloydminster.^[9] English is the primary language of the province, with 82.4% of Saskatchewanians speaking English as their first language.^[10]

Saskatchewan has been inhabited for thousands of years by indigenous groups. Europeans first explored the area in 1690 and first settled in the area in 1774. It became a province in 1905, carved out from the vast North-West Territories, which had until then included most of the Canadian Prairies. In the early 20th century, the province became known as a stronghold for Canadian social democracy; North America's first social-democratic government was elected in 1944. The province's economy is based on agriculture, mining, and energy.

Saskatchewan is presently governed by Premier Scott Moe, a member of the Saskatchewan Party, which has been in power since 2007.

In 1992, the federal and provincial governments signed a historic land claim agreement with First Nations in Saskatchewan.^[11] The First Nations received compensation which they could use to buy land on the open market for the bands. They have acquired about 3,079 km² (761,000 acres; 1,189 sq mi), new reserve lands under this process. Some First Nations have used their settlement to invest in urban areas, including Regina and Saskatoon.^[11]

1. ^ "Emblems of Saskatchewan". Government of Saskatchewan. Archived from the original on March 17, 2015. Retrieved July 22, 2014.
2. ^ "Saskatchewan". Geographical Names Data Base. Natural Resources Canada.
3. ^ "Population and dwelling counts: Canada, provinces and territories". Statistics Canada. February 9, 2022. Archived from the original on February 9, 2022. Retrieved February 9, 2022.
4. ^ "Population estimates, quarterly". Statistics Canada. September 27, 2023. Archived from the original on September 28, 2023. Retrieved September 28, 2023.
5. ^ Saskatchewanian is the prevalent demonym, and is used by the Government of Saskatchewan. According to the Oxford Guide to Canadian English Usage (ISBN 0-19-541619-8; p. 335), Saskatchewaner is also in use.
6. ^ "Gross domestic product, expenditure-based, by province and territory (2015)". Statistics Canada. November 9, 2016. Archived from the original on September 19, 2012. Retrieved January 26, 2017.
7. ^ "Sub-national HDI – Subnational HDI – Global Data Lab". Archived from the original on September 25, 2021. Retrieved September 6, 2021.
8. ^ "Population estimates, quarterly1". Statistics Canada. September 28, 2022.
9. ^ "Statistics Canada, Quarterly demographic estimates, 2009". 150.statcan.gc. Statcan.gc.ca. December 23, 2009. Archived from the original on October 5, 2017. Retrieved February 23, 2011.
10. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (February 8, 2017). "Census Profile, 2016 Census – Saskatchewan [Province] and Canada [Country]". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Archived from the original on June 28, 2021. Retrieved May 27, 2021.
11. ^ ^{a b} "Treaty Land Entitlement – The English River Story, Saskatchewan" Archived July 14, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, accessed November 25, 2011

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2 September 1935 The 1935 Labor Day hurricane hits the Florida Keys, killing 423.

1935 Labor Day hurricane

Category 5 Atlantic hurricane in 1935

"Labor Day storm" redirects here. For the storm that hit Syracuse, New York, in 1998, see New York State Labor Day derechos. For the Arizona storm in 1970, see Tropical Storm Norma (1970).

The 1935 Labor Day Hurricane was an extremely powerful and devastating Atlantic hurricane that struck the southeastern United States in early September 1935. For several decades it was: the most intense Atlantic hurricane on record in terms of barometric pressure, until surpassed by Hurricane Gilbert in 1988;^[1] the strongest Atlantic hurricane on record in terms of 1-minute sustained winds, until surpassed by Hurricane Allen in 1980; and the strongest at landfall by 1-minute sustained winds, until it was tied by Hurricane Dorian in 2019. The fourth tropical cyclone, third tropical storm, second hurricane, and second major hurricane of the 1935 Atlantic hurricane season, it is one of four Category 5 hurricanes on record to strike the contiguous United States, along with Hurricane Camille (1969), Hurricane Andrew (1992), and Hurricane Michael (2018).

The hurricane intensified rapidly, passing near Long Key on Labor Day evening, September 2. The region was swept by a massive storm surge as the eye passed over the area. The waters quickly receded after carving new channels connecting the bay with the ocean; however, gale-force winds and rough seas persisted into Tuesday, disrupting rescue efforts. The storm continued northwestward along the Florida west coast, weakening before making its second landfall near Cedar Key, Florida, on September 4.

The hurricane caused catastrophic damage in the upper Florida Keys, as a storm surge of approximately 18 to 20 feet (5.5 to 6.1 m) swept over the low-lying islands. The hurricane's strong winds and the surge destroyed nearly all the structures between Tavernier and Marathon. The town of Islamorada was obliterated. Portions of the Key West Extension of the Florida East Coast Railway were severely damaged or destroyed. In addition, many veterans died in work camps created for the construction of the Overseas Highway, in part due to poor working conditions. The hurricane also caused more damage in northwest Florida, Georgia, and the Carolinas.

1. ^ Hensen, Bob. "Remembering the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935 in the Florida Keys". Weather Underground. Archived from the original on August 29, 2016. Retrieved August 14, 2016.

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3 September 1812 Twenty four settlers are killed in the Pigeon Roost Massacre in Indiana.

Pigeon Roost State Historic Site

Site of an 1812 massacre of settlers by Native Americans in County Scott, Indiana, United States

Pigeon Roost State Historic Site is located between Scottsburg and Henryville, Indiana, United States. A one-lane road off U.S. Route 31 takes the visitor to the site of a village where Native Americans massacred 24 settlers shortly after the War of 1812 began.

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1972 Mark Spitz becomes the first competitor to win seven medals at a single Olympic Games.

Mark Spitz

American Olympic swimmer (born 1950)

This article is about the swimmer. For the writer, see Marc Spitz.

Mark Andrew Spitz (born February 10, 1950) is an American former competitive swimmer and nine-time Olympic champion. He was the most successful competitor at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, winning seven gold medals, each in world-record time. This achievement set a record that lasted for 36 years, until it was surpassed by fellow American Michael Phelps, who won eight golds at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, though Phelps, like Spitz, set seven world records.

Between 1968 and 1972, Spitz won nine Olympic golds, a silver, and a bronze, in addition to five Pan American golds, 31 Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) titles, and eight National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) titles. During those years he set 35 world records, two of which were in trials and unofficial.^[1][2] Swimming World Magazine named him World Swimmer of the Year in 1969, 1971, and 1972. He was the third athlete to win nine Olympic gold medals.

1. ^ "International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame". Jewishsports.net. February 10, 1950. Retrieved January 30, 2011.
2. ^ "Mark Spitz". Doc Counsilman: Making Waves. Indiana University. Archived from the original on June 2, 2010. Retrieved January 30, 2011.

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5 September 1882 The first United States Labor Day parade is held in New York City.

Labor Day

Federal holiday in the United States

This article is about the U.S. holiday. For the similarly-named holiday in other countries, see Labour Day. For other uses, see Labor Day (disambiguation).

Labor Day is a federal holiday in the United States celebrated on the first Monday of September to honor and recognize the American labor movement and the works and contributions of laborers to the development and achievements of the United States.^[1][2][3]

Beginning in the late 19th century, as the trade union and labor movements grew, trade unionists proposed that a day be set aside to celebrate labor. "Labor Day" was promoted by the Central Labor Union and the Knights of Labor, which organized the first parade in New York City. In 1887, Oregon was the first state of the United States to make it an official public holiday. By the time it became an official federal holiday in 1894, thirty states in the U.S. officially celebrated Labor Day.^[4]

Canada's Labour Day is also celebrated on the first Monday of September. More than 80 other countries celebrate International Workers' Day on May 1, the European holiday of May Day. May Day was chosen by the Second International of socialist and communist parties to commemorate the general labor strike in the United States and events leading to the Haymarket affair, which occurred in Chicago, Illinois, from May 1 – May 4, 1886.^[5][6]

1. ^ U.S. Department of Labor, "Labor Daze – Pride, Chaos and Kegs on Labor's First 'Day'"
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference labor dept was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "Labor Day 2020". History.com. A&E Television Networks. Retrieved May 16, 2020.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Bridgemens1921 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Philip S. Foner (1986). May Day: A Short History of the International Workers' Holiday, 1886–1986. New York: International Publishers. pp. 41–43. ISBN 0-7178-0624-3.
6. ^ Rothman, Lily (May 1, 2017). "The Bloody Story of How May Day Became a Holiday for Workers". Time. Retrieved 2018-03-18.

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6 September 1781 The Battle of Groton Heights takes place, resulting in a British victory.

Battle of Groton Heights

Battle of the American Revolutionary War 1781

The Battle of Groton Heights (also known as the Battle of Fort Griswold, and occasionally called the Fort Griswold massacre) was a battle of the American Revolutionary War fought on September 6, 1781 between a small Connecticut militia force led by Lieutenant Colonel William Ledyard and the more numerous British forces led by Brigadier General Benedict Arnold and Lieutenant Colonel Edmund Eyre.

Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton ordered Arnold to raid the port of New London, Connecticut, in an unsuccessful attempt to divert General George Washington from marching against Lord Cornwallis's army in Virginia. The raid was a success, but the Connecticut militia stubbornly resisted British attempts to capture Fort Griswold across the Thames River in Groton, Connecticut. New London was burned along with several ships, but many more ships escaped upriver.

Several leaders of the attacking British force were killed or seriously wounded, but the British eventually breached the fort. As the British entered the fort the Americans surrendered, but the British continued firing and killed many of the defenders. However, the high number of British casualties in the overall expedition against Groton and New London led to criticism of Arnold by some of his superiors. The battle was the last major military encounter of the war in the northern United States, preceding and being overshadowed by the decisive Franco-American siege of Yorktown about six weeks later.

1. ^ Caulkins, p. 558
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference C546_550 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ ^{a b} Ward, p. 628

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7 September 1943 A fire at the Gulf Hotel in Houston, kills 55 people.

Gulf Hotel fire

1943 hotel fire in downtown Houston, Texas, United States

The Gulf Hotel fire claimed 55 lives in the early-morning hours of September 7, 1943 in Downtown Houston, Texas, United States. The fire remains the worst loss of life in a fire in the city's history.

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8 September 1892 The Pledge of Allegiance is first recited.

Pledge of Allegiance

Loyalty oath to the flag and republic of the U.S.

This article is about the oath spoken to the U.S. flag. For the oath used in U.S. naturalization ceremonies, see Oath of Allegiance (United States). For other uses, see Pledge of Allegiance (disambiguation).

The Pledge of Allegiance is a patriotic recited verse that promises allegiance to the flag of the United States and the republic of the United States of America. The first version, with a text different from the one used at present, was written in 1885 by Captain George Thatcher Balch, a Union Army officer in the Civil War who later authored a book on how to teach patriotism to children in public schools.^[5][6][7] In 1892, Francis Bellamy revised Balch's verse as part of a magazine promotion surrounding the World's Columbian Exposition, which celebrated the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus' arrival in the Americas. Bellamy, the circulation manager for The Youth's Companion magazine, helped persuade then-president Benjamin Harrison to institute Columbus Day as a national holiday and lobbied Congress for a national school celebration of the day.^[8] The magazine sent leaflets containing part of Bellamy's Pledge of Allegiance to schools across the country and on October 21, 1892, over 10,000 children recited the verse together.^[9]

Bellamy's version of the pledge is largely the same as the one formally adopted by Congress 50 years later, in 1942.^[10] The official name of The Pledge of Allegiance was adopted in 1945. The most recent alteration of its wording came on Flag Day (June 14) in 1954, when the words "under God" were added.^[11]

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference ushistory was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Jones, Jeffrey Owen. "The Man Who Wrote the Pledge of Allegiance Archived January 31, 2018, at the Wayback Machine," Smithsonian Magazine, Nov. 2003. Retrieved June 14, 2018.
3. ^ ^{a b} "The Pledge of Allegiance Archived May 16, 2023, at the Wayback Machine," Celebrating America's Freedoms. n.d. U.S. Dept. of Veterans Affairs. Retrieved June 14, 2018.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Pledge was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Kirkpatrick, Melanie. "One Nation, Indivisible". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on December 10, 2015. Retrieved November 1, 2015.
6. ^ "Captain and Brevet Lieutenant Colonel George T. Balch, Ordnance Corps Hall of Fame Inductee 2001, U.S. Army Ordnance Corps". www.goordnance.army.mil. Archived from the original on June 6, 2012. Retrieved November 1, 2015.
7. ^ Balch, George Thacher (1890). Methods of teaching patriotism in the public schools: being an extract from an address delivered before the teachers of the Children's Aid Society of the city of New York. Harvard University. New York : D. Van Nostrand Company.
8. ^ Magazine, Smithsonian. "The Man Who Wrote the Pledge of Allegiance". Smithsonian Magazine. Archived from the original on January 31, 2018. Retrieved June 8, 2022.
9. ^ Schaefer-Jacobs, Debbie (October 23, 2017). "I Pledge Allegiance". National Museum of American History. Archived from the original on May 3, 2022. Retrieved June 8, 2022.
10. ^ "Society & Community. Faith in America: The Legal Dilemma". Now with Bill Moyers. PBS. June 29, 2002. Archived from the original on November 12, 2020. Retrieved September 8, 2017.
11. ^ "The Pledge of Allegiance". WVSD.USCourts.gov. United States District Court for the Southern District of West Virginia. Archived from the original on June 30, 2022. Retrieved June 14, 2021.

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9 September 1839 John Herschel takes the first glass plate photograph.

John Herschel

English polymath (1792–1871)

Sir John Frederick William Herschel, 1st Baronet KH FRS (/ˈhɜːrʃəl, ˈhɛər-/;^[2] 7 March 1792 – 11 May 1871)^[1] was an English polymath active as a mathematician, astronomer, chemist, inventor, and experimental photographer who invented the blueprint^[3][4][5] and did botanical work.^[6]

Herschel originated the use of the Julian day system in astronomy. He named seven moons of Saturn and four moons of Uranus – the seventh planet, discovered by his father Sir William Herschel. He made many contributions to the science of photography, and investigated colour blindness and the chemical power of ultraviolet rays. His Preliminary Discourse (1831), which advocated an inductive approach to scientific experiment and theory-building, was an important contribution to the philosophy of science.^[7]

1. ^ ^{a b c} Cite error: The named reference ODNB was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "Herschel". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. Archived from the original on 30 May 2016.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference EncycBrit was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference columbia was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference vernacu was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference HersNAH was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Cobb 2012, pp. 409–439.

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